Table 3. Unadjusted and adjusted Cox regression analyses of factors associated with all-cause mortality among people who inject drugs (n = 811) in Vancouver, Canada, 2006–2017.
| Characteristic | Unadjusted | Adjusted | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hazard ratio (95% CI) | p-Value | Hazard ratio (95% CI) | p-Value | |
| Age | ||||
| Per year older | 1.04 (1.01–1.07) | 0.006 | 1.05 (1.01–1.09) | 0.012 |
| Sex | ||||
| Male versus female | 1.54 (0.88–2.68) | 0.128 | 1.62 (0.89–2.96) | 0.114 |
| Ancestry | ||||
| White versus non-white | 0.80 (0.49–1.28) | 0.345 | ||
| Downtown Eastside residence* | ||||
| Yes versus no | 1.07 (0.65–1.76) | 0.788 | ||
| Unstable housing* | ||||
| Yes versus no | 1.16 (0.65–2.08) | 0.614 | 1.39 (0.79–2.42) | 0.250 |
| HIV seropositive* | ||||
| Yes versus no | 3.23 (2.00–5.24) | <0.001 | 4.28 (2.63–6.96) | <0.001 |
| Hepatitis C seropositive* | ||||
| Yes versus no | 0.99 (0.40–2.45) | 0.978 | ||
| At least weekly supervised injection facility use* | ||||
| Yes versus no | 0.57 (0.34–0.94) | 0.029 | 0.46 (0.26–0.80) | 0.006 |
| At least daily heroin injection* | ||||
| Yes versus no | 0.58 (0.34–0.99) | 0.045 | ||
| At least daily cocaine injection* | ||||
| Yes versus no | 1.67 (0.90–3.08) | 0.101 | 1.47 (0.78–2.76) | 0.232 |
| At least daily crystal methamphetamine injection* | ||||
| Yes versus no | 0.69 (0.28–1.72) | 0.431 | ||
| At least daily non-injection crack cocaine use* | ||||
| Yes versus no | 1.32 (0.80–2.21) | 0.289 | ||
| At least daily prescription opioid use* | ||||
| Yes versus no | 0.71 (0.29–1.73) | 0.446 | ||
| At least daily cannabis use* | ||||
| Yes versus no | 1.26 (0.71–2.26) | 0.429 | ||
| Benzodiazepine use* | ||||
| Yes versus no | 0.64 (0.16–2.55) | 0.527 | ||
| Heavy alcohol use*† | ||||
| Yes versus no | 1.30 (0.66–2.57) | 0.453 | ||
| Public injection* | ||||
| Yes versus no | 0.79 (0.49–1.28) | 0.341 | 1.48 (0.93–2.37) | 0.100 |
| Binge injection* | ||||
| Yes versus no | 0.88 (0.54–1.43) | 0.591 | ||
| Non-fatal overdose* | ||||
| Yes versus no | 0.76 (0.33–1.75) | 0.518 | ||
| Enrolled in addiction treatment* | ||||
| Yes versus no | 0.63 (0.40–1.01) | 0.632 | 0.66 (0.41–1.08) | 0.102 |
| Exposure to violence* | ||||
| Yes versus no | 0.63 (0.31–1.32) | 0.221 | ||
| Sex work involvement* | ||||
| Yes versus no | 0.97 (0.46–2.05) | 0.941 | ||
| Incarceration* | ||||
| Yes versus no | 0.37 (0.14–1.02) | 0.055 | 0.43 (0.18–1.04) | 0.060 |
| Calendar year of interview | ||||
| Per year increase | 0.60 (0.48–0.76) | <0.001 | 0.52 (0.40–0.69) | <0.001 |
*Refers to the 6-month period prior to a study visit.
†Average of >3 alcoholic drinks on at least 1 day per week or >7 drinks in total per week for women, or >4 alcoholic drinks on at least 1 day per week or >14 drinks in total per week for men.