Table 2.
Significant associations between PT indices and alcohol-related correlates and outcomes.
| Authors | Purpose | Substance | Significant Predictors | Results |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Amlung et al. (2012) | Examine the correspondence between choices for hypothetical and actual outcomes and the correspondence between estimated alcohol consumption and actual drinking behavior among 45 heavy-drinking adults (41 used in final analyses) | Alcohol | • N/A | No significant findings relating to PT indices were reported (Indices assessed: IntensityO, OmaxO, PmaxO, BreakpointO, ElasticityD) |
| Amlung et al. (2013) | Investigate the relationship between caffeine and alcoholic beverages (CAB), alcohol misuse, impulsivity traits, and demand among 316 regularly drinking college students (273 used in final analyses) | Alcohol | • IntensityO • OmaxO • BreakpointO • ElasticityD |
Intensity was associated with premeditation and positive urge impulsivity scores; Intensity and Omax were associated with sensation seeking impulsivity scores; Intensity, Omax, Breakpoint, and Elasticity were associated with negative urgency impulsivity scores and CAB use (Indices assessed: IntensityO, OmaxO, BreakpointO, ElasticityD) |
| Amlung et al. (2015a) | Introduce area under the curve as a novel index of demand in PT among 207 college students with at least one heavy drinking episode in the past month (205 used in final analyses) | Alcohol | • IntensityO • OmaxO |
Intensity and Omax were significant predictors of weekly alcohol consumption and Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire (YAACQ) scores (Indices assessed: IntensityO, OmaxO, PmaxO, BreakpointO, ElasticityD) |
| Amlung et al. (2015b) | Examine the effects of alcohol intoxication on alcohol demand and craving among 85 college students (no report on any exclusions from analyses) | • IntensityO • OmaxO • BreakpointO |
Increases in Intensity, Omax, and Breakpoint were positively correlated with increases in craving after alcohol consumption (Indices assessed: IntensityO, OmaxO, BreakpointO) | |
| Amlung et al. (2016) | Examine whether drinking-and-driving-related cognitions mediate the association between demand and drinking and driving among 147 young adult social drinkers (134 used in final analyses; 132 in Elasticity analyses) | Alcohol | • IntensityO • OmaxO • ElasticityD |
Intensity was correlated with normative beliefs and perceived danger of drinking and driving; Omax and Elasticity were correlated with perceived personal limit; those who drive while intoxicated had higher Intensity and Omax and lower Elasticity (Indices assessed: IntensityO, OmaxO, BreakpointO, ElasticityD) |
| Amlung et al. (2017) | Examine the relationship between concurrent smoking and overvaluation of alcohol among 121 non-treatment seeking drinkers (111 used in the final analyses) | Alcohol | • IntensityO • OmaxO • BreakpointO • ElasticityD |
Intensity, Omax, and Elasticity were correlated with higher alcohol use disorder (AUD) severity and drinks per week; being a smoker predicted higher Omax, higher Breakpoint and lower Elasticity (Indices assessed: IntensityO, OmaxO, PmaxO, BreakpointO, ElasticityD) |
| Amlung & MacKillop (2014) | Investigate the combined effects of acute stress and alcohol cues on craving, arousal, and behavioral economic measures among 90 adult heavy drinkers (84 used in final analyses) | Alcohol | • IntensityO • OmaxO • BreakpointO |
Intensity, Omax, and Breakpoint were higher after a stress test but decreased after neutral cue exposure; exposure to alcohol cues after a stress test increased Breakpoint; changes in responses to a choice procedure (alcohol now vs. money later) following stress vs. neutral cues were mediated by increases in Omax (Indices assessed: IntensityO, Omax O, BreakpointO, ElasticityD) |
| Berman & Martinetti (2017) | Address the effects of 2 academic variables (next-day course level and class size) on alcohol demand among 65 undergraduate students (59 used in final analyses) | Alcohol | • IntensityD • OmaxD • PmaxD • ElasticityD |
Higher Intensity, Omax, Pmax, and lower Elasticity were associated with no constraint conditions (no classes); Elasticity was higher for smaller class sizes (Indices assessed: IntensityD, OmaxD, PmaxD, ElasticityD) |
| Bertholet et al. (2015) | Study the impact of drink price on hypothetical consumption and assess whether demand parameters were associated with alcohol use, alcohol use consequences, and problem severity in a general population samples among 5,520 young adult males (4,790 used in final analyses) | Alcohol | • IntensityO • OmaxO • PmaxO • BreakpointO • ElasticityD |
All indices were correlated with drinks per week, maximum number of drinks per occasion, monthly binge drinking, AUD criteria, and number of alcohol-related consequences (Indices assessed: IntensityO, OmaxO, PmaxO, BreakpointO, ElasticityD) |
| Bujarski et al. (2012) | Assess medication effects of Naltrexone on the relative value of alcohol both before and after acute alcohol administration among 35 heavy drinking adult Asian Americans (32 used in final analyses) | Alcohol | • IntensityD • OmaxD • PmaxD • BreakpointO |
Intensity and Omax were negatively correlated with Naltrexone; Naltrexone reduced Intensity, Omax, and Breakpoint; Naltrexone and OPRM1 genotype interaction was significantly associated with Intensity; Higher Pmax and Breakpoint were associated with alcohol exposure (Indices assessed: IntensityD, OmaxD, PmaxD, BreakpointO, ElasticityD) |
| Bulley & Gullo (2017) | Examine the effect of episodic foresight on alcohol-related decision making among 52 undergraduates (48 used in final analyses) | Alcohol | • IntensityO | Intensity was associated with episodic future thinking (thinking about personally relevant future events to attenuate discounting of delayed rewards) and not with the control imagery condition (Indices assessed: IntensityO, OmaxO, PmaxO, BreakpointO, ElasticityD) |
| Dennhardt et al. (2015) | Examine the impact of a brief substance use intervention on indices of substance reward value and whether baseline values and posttreatment change in these variables predict substance use outcomes among 97 heavy drinking college students (no report on any exclusions from analyses) | Alcohol | • IntensityO • OmaxO • ElasticityD |
Intensity was correlated with alcohol and marijuana problems; Intensity and Omax were reduced after treatment, regardless of additional treatment condition; Intensity, Omax, and Elasticity were correlated with drinks per week and binge drinking; Elasticity increased after treatment, regardless of additional treatment condition (Indices assessed: IntensityO, OmaxO, ElasticityD) |
| Dennhardt et al. (2016) | Examine the factors that contribute to risk for problematic drinking in a high-risk adult sample of 68 heavy drinking military veterans (no report on any exclusions from analyses) | Alcohol | • IntensityD • OmaxD |
Intensity was associated with endorsing more social, coping-anxiety, coping-depression, and enhancement drinking motives; Omax was associated with social and enhancement drinking motives and physical problems relating to alcohol; Intensity and Omax were associated with interpersonal alcohol problems (Indices assessed: IntensityO, OmaxO, ElasticityD) |
| Gentile et al. (2012) | Assess the effects of academic constraints on alcohol demand among 164 college students in one experiment and 59 students in another (no report on any exclusions from analyses) | Alcohol | • IntensityD • ElasticityD |
Intensity was higher and Elasticity was lower in conditions with no academic constraints; Intensity was lower and Elasticity was higher for early class times and classes with exams compared to later class times (Indices assessed: IntensityD, OmaxD, PmaxD, ElasticityD) |
| Gray & MacKillop (2014) | Examine the relationship between demand and alcohol misuse, sex differences in demand, and the relationship between demand and impulsive personality traits among 787 adult smokers (720 used in final analyses, except for Elasticity, which included 684 participants) | Alcohol | • IntensityO • OmaxO • BreakpointO • ElasticityD |
Those with higher negative urgency had higher Intensity and Omax; Intensity, Omax, Breakpoint, and Elasticity were all correlated with Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test scores; males had higher Intensity and Omax and lower Elasticity than females (Indices assessed: IntensityO, Omax O, BreakpointO, ElasticityD) |
| Herschl et al. (2012) | Examine whether greater implicit (alcohol PT) and explicit drinking motivations would predict alcohol-related risk among 297 college binge drinkers (no report on any exclusions from analyses) | Alcohol | • IntensityO
• OmaxO • BreakpointO • ElasticityD |
Intensity was correlated with age; males had higher Intensity and Omax; Intensity and Breakpoint were correlated with Rutgers Alcohol Problem Index scores; Intensity, Omax, and Breakpoint correlated with Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test scores and predicted alcohol-related risk; Intensity, Omax and Elasticity were correlated with age of initiation (Indices assessed: IntensityO, OmaxO, PmaxO, BreakpointO, ElasticityD) |
| Kiselica & Borders (2013) | Determine whether Intensity and Omax mediated the association between four facets of impulsivity and negative drinking outcomes among 247 college drinkers (202 used in final analyses) | Alcohol | • IntensityO • OmaxO |
Intensity was correlated with Urgency, Premeditation, and Sensation Seeking; Omax was correlated with Urgency; males reported higher Intensity and Omax; Intensity and Omax were correlated with more alcohol use and Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire scores (Indices assessed: IntensityO, OmaxO) |
| Lemley et al. (2016) | Assess relations between delay discounting, demand, and Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire (YAACQ) scores among 115 college drinkers (80 used in final analyses) | Alcohol | • IntensityD • BreakpointO |
Intensity predicted higher scores on the YAACQ; males had higher Intensity and Breakpoint (Indices assessed: IntensityD, Omax D, PmaxD, BreakpointO, ElasticityD) |
| Lemley et al. (2017) | Examine the relationships between alcohol demand and money, alcohol, and sexual partner delay discounting among 108 college students (85 used in final analyses) | Alcohol | • IntensityD | Intensity was a significant predictor of drinks per week in both typical and heaviest drinking weeks and a predictor of Sexual Risk Survey scores (Indices assessed: IntensityD, ElasticityD) |
| Luehring-Jones et al. (2016) | Extend previous research examining the effects of implicit associations and deficits in self-regulation on alcohol use among 36 college drinkers (no report on any exclusions from analyses) | Alcohol | • IntensityO, D • OmaxO • ElasticityD |
Intensity was associated with drinking consumption; Intensity was associated with implicit associations between alcohol and approach; Omax predicted drinks per day; interactions between delay discounting and implicit associations predicted Elasticity; alcohol and approach associations predicted Intensity and Elasticity (Indices assessed: IntensityO, D, OmaxO, PmaxO, BreakpointO, ElasticityD) |
| MacKillop & Murphy (2007) | Examine if PT can predict drinking outcomes after a brief intervention among 67 college students (54 used in final analyses) | Alcohol | • OmaxO • PmaxO • BreakpointO • ElasticityD |
Omax, Pmax, Breakpoint, and Elasticity predicted weekly alcohol use post-intervention; Omax and Breakpoint predicted heavy drinking at 6-month follow-up (Indices assessed: IntensityO, OmaxO, PmaxO, BreakpointO, ElasticityD) |
| Morris et al. (2017) | Validate an alcohol PT and a questionnaire measure of proportionate alcohol reinforcement using an online sample among 976 MTurk users (844 used in final analyses) | Alcohol | • IntensityO • OmaxO • BreakpointO • ElasticityD |
Males had higher Intensity; Intensity uniquely predicted Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test (AUDIT) scores; Intensity, Omax, Breakpoint, and Elasticity were correlated with AUDIT scores; Omax, Breakpoint and Elasticity also predicted AUDIT scores but not uniquely (Indices assessed: IntensityO, Omax O, PmaxO, BreakpointO, ElasticityD) |
| Murphy et al. (2009) | Evaluate the reliability and validity of an alcohol PT among 38 college students (no report on any exclusions from analyses) | Alcohol | • IntensityO, D • OmaxO, D • ElasticityD |
Intensity, Omax, and Elasticity were correlated with weekly drinking and the Young Adult Alcohol Problems Screening Test (YAAPST) scores; Intensity predicted YAAPST scores after controlling for weekly drinking (Indices assessed: IntensityO, D, OmaxO, D, PmaxO, D, BreakpointO, ElasticityD) |
| Murphy et al. (2013) | Test whether symptoms of depression and PTSD are uniquely associated with elevated alcohol demand among 133 college students (no exclusions except only 93 used in Elasticity analyses) | Alcohol | • IntensityO • OmaxO • PmaxO • BreakpointO • ElasticityD |
Intensity and Elasticity were correlated with depressive symptoms; Intensity, Omax, and Elasticity were correlated with drinks per week and binge episodes; all indices were correlated with PTSD symptoms (Indices assessed: IntensityO, OmaxO,PmaxO, BreakpointO, ElasticityD) |
| Murphy et al. (2014) | Examine the association between family history of alcohol misuse and individual differences in both alcohol demand and sensitivity of demand to next-day responsibilities among 207 college drinkers (no report on any exclusions from analyses) | Alcohol | • IntensityO • OmaxO • BreakpointO |
Intensity, Omax, and change in Intensity were correlated with drinks per week; Drinkers with family history had smaller reductions in Intensity and Breakpoint if they had a next-day responsibility; Intensity, Omax, and Breakpoint were correlated with Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire scores (Indices assessed: IntensityO, OmaxO, BreakpointO) |
| Murphy et al. (2015) | Determine whether PT indices, measured before and after a brief alcohol intervention, predict treatment response among 133 heavy drinking college students (no report on any exclusions from analyses) | Alcohol | • IntensityO • OmaxO |
Intensity and Omax were positively correlated with typical weekly drinking and Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire (YAACQ) scores; Intensity and Omax were reduced immediately post-intervention; Intensity predicted drinks per week and YAACQ scores at 1-month follow up; reductions in Intensity and Omax post-intervention predicted drinking reductions at 1-month follow-up (Indices assessed: IntensityO, OmaxO) |
| Murphy & MacKillop (2006) | Evaluate the adequacy of the demand equation for describing alcohol consumption, the divergent validity of the indices and their associations to measures of alcohol use, and provide descriptive data on the impact of drink prices on students’ heavy episodic drinking among 267 college students (no report on any exclusions from analyses) | Alcohol | • IntensityO, D • OmaxO, D • BreakpointO |
Intensity and Omax were correlated with Rutgers Alcohol Problem Index scores; Intensity, Omax, and Breakpoint were correlated with drinks per week and heavy drinking episodes per week; Intensity, Omax, and Breakpoint differed between heavy vs. light drinkers (Indices assessed: IntensityO, D, OmaxO, D, PmaxO, D, BreakpointO, ElasticityD) |
| Owens et al. (2015a) | Determine whether a brief PT would be sensitive in detecting changes in demand after exposure to cues, whether cue-elicited changes in a brief PT were similar to those using a full PT, and distinguish differences between cue- elicited changes in demand and craving among 84 adult heavy drinkers (no report on any exclusions from analyses) | Alcohol | • IntensityO • OmaxO • BreakpointO |
Intensity, Omax, and Breakpoint were associated with craving and were higher after exposure to alcohol cues compared to neutral cues (Indices assessed: IntensityO, OmaxO, BreakpointO) |
| Owens et al. (2015b) | Use a PT to determine if a personalized stress induction would increase demand compared to a neutral induction among 64 adult non-treatment seeking heavy drinkers (62 used in final analyses) | Alcohol | • IntensityO • OmaxO • BreakpointO • ElasticityD |
Intensity was associated with craving after neutral induction; those with higher income had greater Omax after stress induction; Intensity, Omax, and Breakpoint were higher and Elasticity was lower following stress induction compared to neutral induction (Indices assessed: IntensityO, OmaxO, BreakpointO, ElasticityD) |
| Skidmore & Murphy (2011) | Examine next-day academic responsibilities and drink price on reported alcohol consumption among 207 college students who reported heavy drinking (no report on any exclusions from analyses) | Alcohol | • IntensityO • OmaxO • PmaxO • BreakpointO • ElasticityD |
Males had higher Intensity, lower Pmax, and lower Breakpoint compared to females; men had higher Intensity overall, although differences were smaller if there were next day responsibilities; Intensity and Omax were higher and Elasticity was lower for high sensation seeking drinkers; Intensity, Omax, Pmax, and Breakpoint were higher and Elasticity was lower when there were no academic responsibilities the following day (Indices assessed: IntensityO, OmaxO, PmaxO, BreakpointO, ElasticityD) |
| Snider et al. (2016) | Examine the effects of engaging alcohol-dependent individuals in an Episode Future Thinking (EFT) group or Episodic Recent Thinking (ERT) group to examine effects on demand using 55 adults with alcohol dependence (37 used in final analyses) | Alcohol | • IntensityD | Intensity was lower in the EFT group compared to the control ERT group (Indices assessed: IntensityD, ElasticityD) |
| Strickland et al. (2016b) | Provide support for the validity and generalizability of an exponentiated model for cocaine, alcohol, and cigarette PT among 40 cocaine using adults (37 used in final analyses) | Cocaine, Alcohol, and Cigarettes | • IntensityD • ElasticityD |
Alcohol Intensity and Elasticity were correlated with drinks per week, Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test scores, and AUD symptoms; males had higher alcohol Intensity and lower alcohol Elasticity than females (Indices assessed: IntensityD, ElasticityD) |
| Strickland & Stoops (2017) | Evaluate the stimulus selectivity of drug purchase tasks in 166 MTurk users (139 used in final analyses) | Alcohol and Cigarettes | • IntensityD • BreakpointO • ElasticityD |
Alcohol Intensity and Breakpoint were correlated with drinks per weeks, days drinking per week, past-month severity of binge drinking; alcohol Elasticity was negatively associated with the above measures (Indices assessed: IntensityD, BreakpointO, ElasticityD) |
| Teeters et al. (2014) | Examine whether elevated demand was associated with driving after drinking among 207 heavy drinking college students (no reports on any exclusions from analyses) | Alcohol | • IntensityO • OmaxO • BreakpointO • ElasticityD |
Intensity and Omax were correlated with drinks per week; Intensity, Omax, and Elasticity were correlated with driving after drinking (Indices assessed: IntensityO, OmaxO, PmaxO, BreakpointO, ElasticityD) |
| Teeters & Murphy (2015) | Examine the association between demand and drinking after driving; determine whether demand decreases in response to a hypothetical driving scenario; determine whether drivers who report drinking after driving show less of a reduction in demand after a driving scenario among 419 college students (no reports on any exclusions from analyses) | Alcohol | • IntensityO • OmaxO • BreakpointO • ElasticityD |
Intensity, Omax, Breakpoint, and Elasticity predicted engaging in intoxicated driving; those endorsing intoxicated driving had less of a reduction across Intensity, Omax, and Breakpoint from a standard PT to one involving a driving scenario (Indices assessed: IntensityO, OmaxO, BreakpointO, ElasticityD) |
| Tucker et al. (2016a) | Evaluate which different behavioral economic measures were associated with drinking problem severity and outcomes of natural recovery attempts among 191 problem drinkers trying to quit drinking on their own (152 used in final analyses) | Alcohol | • IntensityO • ElasticityD |
Higher Intensity predicted higher quantities of alcohol consumed, high scores on the Alcohol Dependence Scale, and fewer days well-functioning; higher Elasticity predicted lower quantities of alcohol consumed and more days well-functioning (Indices assessed: IntensityO, OmaxO, PmaxO, BreakpointO, ElasticityD) |
| Tucker et al. (2016b) | Evaluate the predictive utility of an Alcohol-Savings Discretionary Expenditure index with multiple behavioral economic measures of impulsivity and self-control to predict outcomes of natural recovery attempts among 245 adult problem drinkers (175 used in final analyses) | Alcohol | • N/A | No significant findings relating to PT indices were reported (Indices assessed: IntensityO, Omax O, PmaxO, BreakpointO, ElasticityD) |
| Wahlstrom et al. (2012) | Examine whether a certain genotype would moderate the relationship between alexithymia and a PT among 136 male college binge drinkers (120 used in final analyses) | Alcohol | • IntensityO • BreakpointO • ElasticityD |
Intensity was correlated with Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test scores; Intensity and Elasticity were correlated with alexithymia; those with the DRD2/ANKK1 TaqI A1+ allele type had higher Breakpoint; among those with an A1+ allele type, greater alexithymia predicted less Elasticity (Indices assessed: IntensityO, OmaxO, PmaxO, BreakpointO, ElasticityD) |
| Weinstock et al. (2016) | Examine a gambling PT as a measure gambling using the behavioral economic model employed with the alcohol PT, using the alcohol PT for discriminant validity, for 73 adults across three groups: 28 adults with Gambling Disorder, 24 adults with AUD, and 21 healthy controls (no reports on any exclusions from analyses) | Alcohol | • IntensityO • OmaxO • PmaxO • BreakpointO • ElasticityD |
Those with AUD had higher Intensity, Omax, Pmax, and Breakpoint and lower Elasticity on the alcohol PT (Indices assessed: IntensityO, OmaxO, PmaxO, BreakpointO, ElasticityD) |
| Yurasek et al. (2011) | Examine enhancement and coping drinking motives as mediators between demand and alcohol use and problems among 255 college drinkers (215 used in final analyses) | Alcohol | • IntensityO • OmaxO • PmaxO • BreakpointO • ElasticityD |
Intensity predicted enhancement and coping motives; Omax predicted enhancement motives; Intensity and Omax were correlated with binge drinking episodes and predicted alcohol use; Intensity and Omax were correlated with coping motives; Intensity, Omax, and Pmax were correlated with peak number of drinks; Intensity, Omax, and Breakpoint were correlated with enhancement motives; Intensity, Omax, Breakpoint, and Elasticity were correlated with drinks per week and Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire scores (Indices assessed: IntensityO, Omax O, PmaxO, BreakpointO, ElasticityD) |
| Yurasek et al. (2013) | Investigate whether heavy drinking smokers would have greater demand for alcohol than heavy drinking non-smokers among 207 college drinkers (no reports on any exclusions from analyses) | Alcohol | • IntensityO • OmaxO • PmaxO • BreakpointO • ElasticityD |
Alcohol Intensity and Omax were correlated with nicotine dependence scores; smokers had higher Omax, Breakpoint, and Pmax; heavier smokers (7+ cigarettes per day) had higher Omax and Breakpoint; Elasticity was correlated with Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale scores; Intensity, Omax, and Elasticity were correlated with alcohol consumption; Intensity, Omax, Breakpoint, and Elasticity were correlated with Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire scores; all indices were correlated with smoking status (Indices assessed: IntensityO, OmaxO, PmaxO, BreakpointO, ElasticityD) |
Note.
O
denotes when indices were observed from raw purchase task data
D
denotes when indices were derived from an equation.