Table 3.
Hazard ratios of total mortality and mortality due to cardiovascular disease and cancer according to consumptions of dairy food subtypes, based on pooled analyses of cohorts from the Nurses’ Health Study, Nurses’ Health Study II, and Health Professionals Follow-up Study*†
| Dairy intake (by serving category) | Hazard ratio (95% CI)‡ | P for trend | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Category 1 | Category 2 | Category 3 | Category 4 | |||
| Skimmed or low fat milk (serving categories: <1/week, 1-4/week, 4/week-1.5/day, ≥1.5/day) | ||||||
| Total mortality | ||||||
| NHS | 1.00 | 0.95 (0.92 to 0.99) | 0.98 (0.94 to 1.02) | 1.05 (1.01 to 1.10) | 1.02 (1.01 to 1.03) | <0.001 |
| NHSII | 1.00 | 0.89 (0.80 to 1.00) | 0.88 (0.78 to 0.98) | 0.93 (0.82 to 1.06) | 0.99 (0.97 to 1.02) | 0.64 |
| HPFS | 1.00 | 0.98 (0.94 to 1.01) | 1.01 (0.97 to 1.05) | 1.04 (1.00 to 1.09) | 1.01 (1.00 to 1.02) | 0.01 |
| Pooled analysis | 1.00 | 0.96 (0.93 to 0.99) | 0.99 (0.96 to 1.02) | 1.04 (1.01 to 1.07) | 1.01 (1.00 to 1.02) | <0.001 |
| Cardiovascular mortality | ||||||
| NHS | 1.00 | 1.02 (0.93 to 1.11) | 0.97 (0.89 to 1.06) | 1.07 (0.97 to 1.19) | 1.01 (0.99 to 1.04) | 0.22 |
| NHSII | 1.00 | 0.81 (0.57 to 1.13) | 0.79 (0.56 to 1.12) | 0.79 (0.53 to 1.19) | 0.96 (0.88 to 1.05) | 0.39 |
| HPFS | 1.00 | 0.97 (0.90 to 1.04) | 1.05 (0.98 to 1.13) | 1.05 (0.97 to 1.13) | 1.01 (1.00 to 1.02) | 0.10 |
| Pooled analysis | 1.00 | 0.98 (0.93 to 1.04) | 1.02 (0.96 to 1.07) | 1.05 (0.99 to 1.12) | 1.01 (1.00 to 1.02) | 0.06 |
| Cancer mortality | ||||||
| NHS | 1.00 | 0.97 (0.91 to 1.04) | 0.99 (0.92 to 1.05) | 1.04 (0.96 to 1.12) | 1.01 (0.99 to 1.03) | 0.19 |
| NHSII | 1.00 | 1.04 (0.87 to 1.24) | 1.00 (0.84 to 1.20) | 1.06 (0.87 to 1.29) | 1.01 (0.97 to 1.05) | 0.70 |
| HPFS | 1.00 | 0.97 (0.90 to 1.05) | 0.99 (0.92 to 1.06) | 1.00 (0.92 to 1.08) | 1.00 (0.98 to 1.02) | 0.83 |
| Pooled analysis | 1.00 | 0.98 (0.93 to 1.03) | 0.99 (0.94 to 1.04) | 1.02 (0.97 to 1.08) | 1.00 (0.99 to 1.02) | 0.28 |
| Whole milk (serving categories: <1/month, 1-3/month, 3/month-2/week, ≥2/week) | ||||||
| Total mortality | ||||||
| NHS | 1.00 | 1.01 (0.97 to 1.05) | 1.03 (0.99 to 1.07) | 1.15 (1.10 to 1.19) | 1.13 (1.10 to 1.17) | <0.001 |
| NHSII | 1.00 | 0.99 (0.84 to 1.16) | 1.10 (0.93 to 1.29) | 1.26 (1.08 to 1.48) | 1.28 (1.10 to 1.49) | 0.002 |
| HPFS | 1.00 | 1.00 (0.95 to 1.05) | 1.01 (0.96 to 1.06) | 1.11 (1.07 to 1.16) | 1.09 (1.05 to 1.13) | <0.001 |
| Pooled analysis | 1.00 | 1.00 (0.97 to 1.04) | 1.03 (0.99 to 1.06) | 1.13 (1.10 to 1.17) | 1.11 (1.09 to 1.14) | <0.001 |
| Cardiovascular mortality | ||||||
| NHS | 1.00 | 1.05 (0.95 to 1.16) | 0.98 (0.89 to 1.09) | 1.17 (1.07 to 1.28) | 1.14 (1.05 to 1.24) | 0.001 |
| NHSII | 1.00 | 0.88 (0.52 to 1.49) | 1.04 (0.61 to 1.76) | 1.18 (0.71 to 1.94) | 1.18 (0.73 to 1.91) | 0.49 |
| HPFS | 1.00 | 0.98 (0.90 to 1.07) | 1.07 (0.98 to 1.17) | 1.06 (0.98 to 1.14) | 1.05 (0.98 to 1.12) | 0.15 |
| Pooled analysis | 1.00 | 1.01 (0.95 to 1.08) | 1.03 (0.96 to 1.10) | 1.10 (1.04 to 1.17) | 1.09 (1.03 to 1.15) | 0.001 |
| Cancer mortality | ||||||
| NHS | 1.00 | 1.01 (0.94 to 1.09) | 1.04 (0.96 to 1.12) | 1.12 (1.05 to 1.21) | 1.11 (1.04 to 1.19) | <0.001 |
| NHSII | 1.00 | 1.02 (0.80 to 1.32) | 1.06 (0.82 to 1.37) | 1.32 (1.03 to 1.70) | 1.30 (1.03 to 1.65) | 0.03 |
| HPFS | 1.00 | 0.98 (0.89 to 1.07) | 0.98 (0.89 to 1.08) | 1.12 (1.03 to 1.22) | 1.10 (1.02 to 1.17) | 0.006 |
| Pooled analysis | 1.00 | 1.00 (0.94 to 1.06) | 1.02 (0.96 to 1.08) | 1.13 (1.07 to 1.19) | 1.11 (1.06 to 1.17) | <0.001 |
| Cheese (serving categories: <1/week, 1-4/week, 4/week-1.5/day, ≥1.5/day) | ||||||
| Total mortality | ||||||
| NHS | 1.00 | 1.03 (0.98 to 1.08) | 1.04 (0.98 to 1.09) | 1.09 (1.00 to 1.18) | 1.02 (1.00 to 1.04) | 0.07 |
| NHSII | 1.00 | 1.01 (0.88 to 1.14) | 1.13 (0.98 to 1.31) | 1.20 (0.96 to 1.51) | 1.08 (1.02 to 1.14) | 0.009 |
| HPFS | 1.00 | 0.90 (0.87 to 0.94) | 0.92 (0.88 to 0.96) | 0.92 (0.85 to 0.99) | 0.98 (0.96 to 1.00) | 0.04 |
| Pooled analysis | 1.00 | 0.95 (0.92 to 0.98) | 0.97 (0.94 to 1.01) | 1.00 (0.95 to 1.06) | 1.00 (0.99 to 1.02) | 0.69 |
| Cardiovascular mortality | ||||||
| NHS | 1.00 | 1.05 (0.93 to 1.17) | 1.05 (0.94 to 1.19) | 1.15 (0.95 to 1.39) | 1.03 (0.98 to 1.08) | 0.23 |
| NHSII | 1.00 | 0.86 (0.58 to 1.27) | 1.41 (0.93 to 2.16) | 1.40 (0.70 to 2.79) | 1.23 (1.04 to 1.45) | 0.01 |
| HPFS | 1.00 | 0.90 (0.84 to 0.96) | 0.91 (0.84 to 0.98) | 0.86 (0.75 to 0.99) | 0.96 (0.93 to 1.00) | 0.05 |
| Pooled analysis | 1.00 | 0.93 (0.88 to 0.99) | 0.96 (0.90 to 1.02) | 0.96 (0.86 to 1.08) | 0.99 (0.96 to 1.03) | 0.61 |
| Cancer mortality | ||||||
| NHS | 1.00 | 0.99 (0.91 to 1.08) | 1.05 (0.96 to 1.15) | 1.13 (0.98 to 1.30) | 1.05 (1.01 to 1.09) | 0.01 |
| NHSII | 1.00 | 0.96 (0.79 to 1.16) | 1.02 (0.82 to 1.26) | 1.09 (0.76 to 1.55) | 1.04 (0.95 to 1.13) | 0.41 |
| HPFS | 1.00 | 0.96 (0.89 to 1.03) | 0.98 (0.90 to 1.06) | 0.91 (0.78 to 1.07) | 0.98 (0.95 to 1.02) | 0.39 |
| Pooled analysis | 1.00 | 0.97 (0.92 to 1.02) | 1.01 (0.95 to 1.07) | 1.03 (0.93 to 1.14) | 1.02 (0.99 to 1.05) | 0.16 |
NHS=Nurses’ Health Study; NHSII=Nurses’ Health Study II; HPFS=Health Professionals Follow-up Study.
Associations for yogurt not shown to avoid duplication with another study.
Multivariable adjusted model was further adjusted for family history of cancer (yes, no), family history of cardiovascular disease (yes, no), baseline disease status (hypertension, hypercholesterolemia), baseline body mass index (<20.9, 21.0-22.9, 23.0-24.9, 25.0-29.9, 30.0-34.9, ≥35.0), physical activity (<3.0, 3.0-8.9, 9.0-17.9, 18.0-26.9, ≥27.0 metabolic equivalent hours per week), overall dietary pattern (alternate healthy eating index score, in fifths), total energy intake (fifths), smoking status (Nurses’ Health Study and Health Professionals Follow-up Study: never, former (categorized into 1-4, 5-14, 15-24, 25-34, 35-44, ≥45 cigarettes/day, or unknown), current (categorized in to 1-4, 5-14, 15-24, 25-34, 35-44, ≥45 cigarettes/day, or unknown), alcohol consumption (0, ≥0-5, ≥5-10, ≥10-15, ≥15 g/day), postmenopausal status (yes, no; women only), and current postmenopausal hormone use (yes, no; women only). Subtypes of dairy foods were adjusted for each other.
Per increment of 0.5 servings/day.