TABLE I.
Nonhuman primate studies of noise exposures, hearing impairment, and cochlear pathology. Studies are listed chronologically. NBN = narrowband noise; OBN = octave band noise; BBN = broadband noise; CF = center frequency; BW = bandwidth; ABR = auditory brainstem response; DPOAE = distortion product otoacoustic emission; OHC = outer hair cell; IHC = inner hair cell; LF = low frequency; AP = action potential from auditory nerve. Literature searches for this review were completed in PubMed using keywords such as: nonhuman primate, monkey, macaque, noise, exposure, impulse, hearing loss, cochlea, hair cell, sensorineural, threshold shift.
| Citation | Species | Exposure Stimulus | Exposure Level | Exposure Duration | Multiple Exposures? | Behavioral Audiogram? | ABR/DPOAE/Immittance? | Cochlear Histology? | Additional Details |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Martin et al. (1962) | Rhesus macaques | Machine gun impulse | 165 dB SPL | 1x | No | Yes | No | No | Single subject; mild TTS in mid/high frequencies only; full recovery within 72 h |
| Romba and Gates (1964) | Rhesus macaques | Machine gun impulses | 154-166 dB SPL | 1x | Yes (8–12) | Yes | No | No | TTS recovery and PTS accumulation varies extensively across subjects and exposures |
| Harris (1967) | Rhesus macaques | Pure tones (2-kHz) | 90-120 dB SPL | 30–60 min | Yes (4<) | Yes | No | No | TTS and PTS accumulate across exposures |
| Luz and Hodge (1971) | Rhesus macaques | Impulse noise | 168 dB SPL | 2x | Yes (2) | Yes | No | No | TTS severity and recovery |
| Tank noise | 110 dB SPL | 12 min | Yes (3) | ||||||
| Hunter-Duvar and Elliott (1972) | Squirrel monkeys | Pure tones (1- or 2-kHz) | 120 dB SPL | 5–15 min, 20 min–12 h | Yes (1–7) | Yes | No | Yes | TTS and PTS do not correlate with OHC or IHC loss |
| Hunter-Duvar and Elliott (1973) | Squirrel monkeys | Pure tones (1- or 2-kHz) | 130 or 140 dB SPL | 3 or 4 h | No | Yes | No | Yes | PTS does not correlate with OHC or IHC loss |
| Luz et al. (1973) Jordan et al. (1973) Pinheiro et al. (1973) | Rhesus macaques | Impulse noise | 168 dB SPL | 2x | Yes (3–18) | Yes | No | Yes | TTS and PTS accumulation across exposures; OHC and IHC counts; improved LF sensitivity in some subjects |
| Tank noise | 110 dB SPL | 12 min | Yes (2) | ||||||
| Pugh et al. (1974) | Pigtail macaques, squirrel monkeys | OBN (8-kHz CF) | 114 dB SPL | 30 min | Yes (not specified) | Yes | Yes | No | Simultaneously recorded AP from chronically implanted electrode; smaller neural TTS than behavioral TTS |
| Scheib et al. (1975a) | Rhesus macaques | OBN (2-kHz CF) | 90 dB SPL | 36 days | No | Yes | No | No | TTS growth over duration of exposure |
| Scheib et al. (1975b) | Rhesus macaques | OBN (2-kHz CF) | 90 dB SPL | 90 days | No | Yes | No | Yes | TTS growth and accumulation to PTS; no relation to OHC/IHC loss |
| Hawkins et al. (1976) | Rhesus, pigtail, and crab-eating macaques, baboon | OBN (0.5-, 2-, 4-, or 8-kHz CF) or BBN (100-Hz to 10-kHz) | 120 dB SPL | 8 h | Yes (20) | Yes | No | Yes | TTS and PTS accumulation over time; weakly correlated with OHC and IHC loss; BBN causes more damage than OBN |
| Jerger et al. (1978b) | Squirrel monkey | BBN | 108–118 dB SPL | 1-2 h | Yes (1–5) | No | Yes | Yes | Tympanometry and acoustic reflexes pre- and post-noise exposure; reflexes predict severity and extent of cochlear damage |
| Nielsen et al. (1978) | Squirrel monkeys | NBN (375-750-Hz) | 95 or 105 dB SPL | 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 24, or 48 h | Yes (7<) | Yes | No | No | TTS growth increases with longer exposure times; TTS recovery is biphasic |
| Moody et al. (1978) | Rhesus, pigtail, and crab-eating macaques, baboon | OBN (0.5-, 2-, 4-, or 8-kHz CF) or BBN (100-Hz to 10-kHz) | 120 dB SPL | 8 h | Yes (20) | Yes | No | Yes | Extension of Hawkins et al. (1976); TTS does not increase with continued exposure; weak correlation between PTS and OHC/IHC loss; Stebbins et al. (1979) references this data in species comparison |
| OBN (2-kHz CF) | 120 dB SPL | 40 hr | No | Yes | Yes | ||||
| Nielsen et al. (1978) | Squirrel monkeys | NBN (375-750-Hz) | 95 or 105 dB SPL | 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 24, or 48 h | Yes (7<) | Yes | No | No | TTS growth increases with longer exposure times; TTS recovery is biphasic |
| Pugh et al. (1979) | Pigtail macaques | OBN (8-kHz CF) | 108 dB SPL | 1 h | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | Loudness recruitment during TTS and PTS; similar estimates via reaction time task and chronic electrocochleography |
| OBN (8-kHz CF) | 118 dB SPL | 8 h | Yes (20) | ||||||
| Moody et al. (1980) | Rhesus macaques | OBN (2-kHz CF) | 100 dB SPL | 1 or 2 h | No | Yes | No | No | Response latency as a function of tone intensity during TTS recovery; compared to effects of ethanol administration |
| Lonsbury-Martin and Martin (1981) | Rhesus macaques | Pure tones (many different CFs) | 100 dB SPL | 3 min | Yes (not specified) | Yes | No | No | TTS and neuronal adaptation recovery times; recorded neurons in cochlear nucleus and inferior colliculus |
| Nielsen et al. (1984) | Squirrel monkeys | OBN (500-Hz CF) | 95 dB SPL | 2, 4, 8, 12, 16, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72, or 96 h | Yes (7<) | Yes | No | No | Continuous vs. interrupted exposures; TTS growth is faster for continuous than interrupted noise |
| Lonsbury-Martin et al. (1987) | Rhesus macaques | Pure tones (many different CFs) | 100 dB SPL | 3 min | Yes (not specified; 5.5–14.4 h total) | Yes | No | Yes | Total of 5–14 h of exposure; mild PTS accumulation from TTS; no relationship between PTS and OHC/IHC loss |
| Valero et al. (2017) | Rhesus macaques | NBN (2-kHz CF, 50-Hz BW) | 108, 120, 140, 146 dB SPL | 4 h | Yes (1–5) | No | Yes | Yes | ABR and DPOAE characterization of TTS and PTS; OHC, IHC, and IHC ribbon synapse counts |
| Hauser et al. (2018) | Rhesus and bonnet macaques | NBN (2-kHz CF, 50-Hz BW) | 140, 146 dB SPL | 4 h | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | Tone detection in quiet, steady state noise, and amplitude modulated noise following PTS; correlated with OHC/IHC/synapse loss |