. 2019 Nov 27;15:59. doi: 10.1186/s13002-019-0341-0

Table 1.

Traditionally gathered wild food plants recorded among Muslim and Kakai Kurds in the study area

Botanical taxon/taxa, family, and voucher specimen code(s)	Recorded local name(s)	Used parts	(Etic) taste characteristics	Traditional culinary use	Quotation
Allium ampeloprasum L., KURD11	Koraya, Qorada, Qurada	Aerial parts	Pungent	Seasoning	M
Allium iranicum (Wendelbo) Wendelbo, Amaryllidaceae^#	Keniwal	Whole plant	Pungent	Bread seasoning; snack	K, M
Allium koelzii (Wendelbo) Perss. and Wendelbo, Amaryllidaceae, KURD20	Kol	Young leaves	Light pungent and sweetish	Cooked	M
Allium paradoxum (M. Bieb.) G. Don, Amaryllidaceae^#	Karat^K, Knal^K, Piçek^K, Siçek^K	Leaves	Light pungent and sweetish	Consumed raw as sawza; bread and yogurt seasoning; cooked with rice or bulgur; preserved in brine (lacto-fermented)	KK, M
Anchusa azurea Mill., Boraginaceae, KURD100	Gezerwan, Gozerwan, Gurmiza	Young aerial parts	Herbaceous	Boiled	K, MM
Arum rupicola Boiss., Araceae, KURD92, possible other Arum spp., and Dracunculus vulgaris Schott, Araceae, KURD99	Kardi, Kardu, Xas	Leaves	Pungent	Boiled in “sumac water” (suspension of water and sumac fruits) and then cooked in various ways (often with rice/bulgur and wild leek); preserved in brine (lacto-fermented) or dried (sometimes in necklaces)	KK, MMM
Asparagus sp., Asparagaceae^#	Marije^K, Marijok^K	Shoots	Slightly bitter	Cooked with rice	K
Bongardia chrysogonum (L.) Spach, Berberidaceae, KURD96	Gabla, Galba	Shoots	Herbaceous (earthy)	Cooked	M
Bunium paucifolium DC., Apiaceae, KURD89	Dobeldobana, Dobel	Tubers	Sweetish and crunchy	Snack; boiled	KK
Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., Apiaceae^#	Zarkazawi, Zargazewi	Tubers	Sweetish and crunchy	Snack	K, M
Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad., Cucurbitaceae^#	Jijalek, Gujalek, Gumpshila^K	Unripe fruits	Bitter	Snack (as a medicinal food for treating kidney dysfunctions)	K, M
Crataegus spp., Rosaceae^#	Gewask^K, Gwaiş	Fruits	Slightly astringent and sweet	Snack	K, M
Crocus biflorus Mill.^# and possibly other Crocus spp., Iridaceae	Pifok, Piçek, Pijok^K, Pişok, Pivok	Corms (after removal of fibrous tunic)	Herbaceous (earthy) and crunchy	“Social snack”	KK, MM
Erodium cicutarium (L.) L'Hér. and Erodium moschatum (L.) L'Hér., Geraniaceae, KURD79, KURD77	Agilaklak, Darzila, Dendulaklak, Giaderzile, Menkarlaklak*	Young infructescences	Herbaceous	Snack (sometimes considered a medicinal food for treating stomach-aches)	KK, MM
Foeniculum vulgare L., Apiaceae KURD88	Hazola, Rasiana*	Young leaves	Aromatic	Raw as sawza	K, M
Geranium tuberosum L., Geraniaceae^#	Pushien	Tubers	Crunchy	Snack; preserved in brine (lacto-fermented)	M
Glycyrrhiza glabra L.^# Fabaceae	Balek*	Young stems (peeled)	Sweet	Snack	K
Gundelia turnefortii L., Asteraceae, KURD97	Çinger^K, Kinger	Internal parts of the tender whorls and upper part of the root; seeds (sesi)	Slightly bitter (whorls); nutty (seeds)	Whorls: boiled; preserved in brine (lacto-fermented); seeds: boiled in salty water, then roasted, and consumed as a “social snack”	KKK, MMM (whorls); K, M (seeds)
Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch., Poaceae, KURD95	Piazoka	Young aerial parts	Herbaceous	Raw as sawza	M
Johrenia aromatica Rech. f., Apiaceae, KURD69	Baraza	Aerial parts	Aromatic	Recreation tea; “social snack” (this is consumption sometimes considered as a food medicine for treating kidney disease)	M
Lathyrus sp., Fabaceae^#	Polka	Young fruits	Herbaceous	Snack	M
Malus orientalis Uglitzk. ex Juz., Rosaceae^#	Sevelok, Sevun, Siev^K	Unripe fruits, fruits	Astringent and sour (unripe fruits); sour and sweet (ripe fruits)	Snack	KK, M
Malva neglecta Waller, Malvaceae, KURD03	Talaka^K, Tolaga^K, Tolka, Tollaka^K, Xobas*	Leaves, stems (peeled), and fruits	Herbaceous and mucilaginous	Leaves: cooked with eggs, sarma; soups, preserved in brine (lacto-fermented); sometimes considered a medicinal food for treating heart disease; stems and fruits: snacks	KKK, MMM
Matricaria chamomilla L., Asteraceae, KURD 84	Beibun, Gulaçarma^K, Gulaçarmala, Gurlinka	Flowering tops	Aromatic	Recreational tea	KK, M
Mentha longifolia (L.) Hudson and Mentha spicata L. Lamiaceae, KURD73, KURD08	Ping, Punga	Leaves	Aromatic	Seasoning (esp. yogurt); recreational tea (often with raisins)	KK, MMM
Myrtus communis L., Myrtaceae, KURD103	Mert	Leaves	Aromatic	Recreational tea	M
Nasturtium officinale R.Br., Brassicaceae, KURD57	Çuzala, Kuzala, Pandirpoza^K, Pizala^K, Xuzala	Aerial parts	Pungent	Raw as sawza	KK, MM
Ornithogalum balansae Boiss. and possibly other O. spp., Asparagaceae, KURD94	Aerial parts: Gelik, Glexa^K Bulbs: Formaşişana, Hormçiçek, Hurmaşişana, Hurmatsitsana, Şimişak^K	Aerial parts and bulbs	Herbaceous (aerial parts). bitter and crunchy (bulbs)	Aerial parts: cooked; bulbs: snack, cooked	KK, MM
Petasites albus (L.) Gaertn., Asteraceae^#	Kaşma	Leaves	Slightly bitter	Cooked	M
Pistacia atlantica Desf., Anacardiaceae, KURD102	Kaskauan^K, Kaskavaniş, Kaşakau^K, Kaskuan	Unripe fruits	Resinous	Seasoning mastaw (ayran) and terhana (mixture of bulgur/grains and yogurt); preserved in brine and consumed as a side-dish^K	KK, MMM
Pleurotus and possibly Agaricus spp., Pleurotaceae^#	Karçik^K, Karg, Karzik, Xarçek, Xarzek, Xuarek	Fruiting bodies	Mushroom-like	Boiled and then fried	KK, MMM
Portulaca oleracea L., Portulaceae, KURD27	Barpina, Palapina, Parpina	Aerial parts	Herbaceous (mineral) and crunchy	Raw or cooked	K, MM
Prosopis farcta (Banks and Sol.) J.F.Macbr., Fabaceae#	Xarnik, Xaşxaşa	Seeds	Sweetish and nutty	Snack (sometimes consumed as a medicinal food for treating stomach-ache and diarrhoea in children)	K
Prunus arabica (Olivier) Meikle^# Rosaceae	Bayaf, Bayu, Baui*, Nabyk^K	Kernels	Very bitter	Boiled with salt and then consumed as a snack (preserved in the same brine)	K,M
Prunus cerasifera Ehrh. and Prunus microcarpa C. A. Mey., Rosaceae^#	Gelas*, Halu, Zardalu	Unripe fruits	Sour and astringent	Snack	K, M
Prunus webbii (Spach), Vierh., Rosaceae^#	Çakalove*	Unripe fruits	Sour and astringent	Snack	K
Quercus infectoria G. Olivier, Fagaceae, KURD07	Şokabaru	Honeydew (”Kurdish manna”): Gazo: collected on oak leaves. Şoka: collected on unripe acorns, (Fig. 9)	Sweet	Syrup	M
Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl. and possibly Quercus brantii Lindl.^#, Fagaceae, KURD101	Baru, Şabalu	Unripe and ripe fruits	Astringent	Unripe fruits: snack; ripe fruits: roasted or boiled and then roasted; eaten with honey against stomach-ache; preserved dried (mainly in the past)	KK, MM
Rheum ribes L., Polygonaceae, KURD104	Rewas	Leaf petioles	Sour	“Social snack”	K, MM
Rubus ulmifolius Schott, Rosaceae^#	Alga*, Tuturk	Fruits	Sweet	Snack	K, M
Rumex acetosa L., Rumex crispus L., and possibly other Rumex spp., Polygonaceae, KURD50, KURD81	Trşoka, Truska, Turşka^K, Xamga*	Leaves	Sour	Raw as sawza (R. acetosa); sarma (R. crispus); tea for treating stomach-ache	KK, MM
Satureja thymbra L., Lamiaceae, KURD04	Hasola, Iatra, Jatra, Zatra	Aerial parts	Aromatic	Seasoning	MMM
Scorzonera papposa DC., Asteraceae^#	Damkoz^K, Gazer^K, Halaluk, Hapaluk, Haplog, Karkoza, Pesbala	Roots and leaves	Sweetish (roots); herbaceous (leaves)	Roots: raw snack (sometimes considered a medicinal food for treating stomach-ache); preserved in brine (lacto-fermented); leaves: cooked in yogurt	KK, MMM
Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn. and (more rarely) Carduus pycnocephalus L., Asteraceae, KURD85, KURD22	Çaubaza, Kalagan, Kalaguana^K, Kalangana, Kalgana, Kalxana^K, Kerbaşa, Kevar, Kosep*, Xalxana^K	Young stems (peeled)	Slightly bitter and crunchy	“Social snack”	K, MMM
Sinapis arvensis L. and (more rarely) Raphanus raphanistrum L., Brassicaceae, KURD71, KURD75	Fijiela*, Gulasarda^K, Tavar, Teveroka, Torpoka^K, Turuoka, Xartala, Xatala^K	Young stems (peeled) and leaves	Slightly pungent	Stems: snack; leaves: soup	K, MM
Smyrnium cordifolium Boiss., Apiaceae^#	Gnor, Narima	Stems (peeled)	Aromatic	Snack	MM
Solanum nigrum L., Solanaceae^#	Arrosalà^K	Fruits	Herbaceous	Snack	K
Terfezia and Tirmania spp., Terfeziaceae, KURD106	Dolaman^K, Dombalan, Dumaran^K	Fruiting bodies	Mushroom-like	Boiled and then cooked, often with eggs and onions; roasted; preserved in brine (lacto-fermented); tea for treating eye inflammations	KKK, MMM
Thymus sp., Lamiaceae^#	Asbiela	Aerial parts	Aromatic	Seasoning	M
Tordylium aegyptiacum (L.) Lam., Apiaceae, KURD82	Gurame*, Gurgemi, Nanafalla	Seeds	Aromatic	Snack; seasoning	K, MM
Tragopogon collinus DC., Asteraceae^#	Şing	Leaves and roots	Leaves: herbaceous, roots: sweetish	Cooked	M
Tribulus terrestris L., Zygophyllaceae^#	Peikola^K	Unripe fruits and seeds	Herbaceous (pea-like)	Unripe fruits: snack; Seeds: boiled	KK, M
Tulipa montana Lindl.^# and possibly other Tulipa spp., Liliaceae	Melaqa	Bulbs	Sweetish and crunchy	Snack	MM
Vicia ervilia (L.) Willd., Fabaceae, KURD87	Gadana^K	Young fruits	Herbaceous (pea-like)	Snack	KK
Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Rhamnaceae, KURD91	Knar	Fruits	Sweetish and sour	Snack	M
Unidentified (Amaryllidaceae?) sp.	Zaxari^K, Zotka^K, Zuotka^K	Underground parts		Snack (sometimes considered a medicinal food for treating heart diseases)	KK
Unidentified (Apiaceae?) sp.	Şawbo^K	Fruits		Seasoning	K
Unidentified sp.	Danteşkara^K	Fruits		Snack; cooked	K
Unidentified sp.	Fetr*	Underground parts		Snack	M
Unidentified sp.	Damkos^K	Underground parts		Snack	K

KKK very commonly quoted by Kakai Kurds (more than 40% of informants), KK commonly quoted by Kakai Kurds (10–40% of informants), K rarely quoted by Kakai Kurds (less than 10% of informants), MMM very commonly quoted by Sunni Muslim Kurds (more than 40% of informants), MM commonly quoted by Sunni Muslim Kurds (10–40% of informants), M rarely quoted by Sunni Muslim Kurds (less than 10% of informants)

^#Identification made on the basis of plant description, folk names, and/or pictures provided by the informants

*Local name recorded in the multi-ethnic (Kurdish, Arab, Shabak) village of Sherkan

^KLocal name recorded in Kakai villages only