Table 2.

Characteristics of the four educational roles

Characteristics and descriptions	References
Role Modelling
Webster’s Dictionary “a person considered as a standard of excellence to be imitated.”	[51–53]
Combination of personal characteristics (Heart), professional patient care (Hands-on), and teaching that involves continuously making the implicit explicit (Head). Being a role model, as opposed to being a teacher or a mentor when the moment calls for it, implies that the clinical trainer integrates the “3Hs” as a unity all the time and everywhere.	[54]
everything faculty do in their being and acting as professionals both inside and outside the hospital	[55–58]
Specific observable behaviour (as well as attitudes and values) to be emulated or even surpassed by residents	[58–62]
Role modelling has been defined as “a way responses (specific observable behaviour as well as attitudes and values) can be learned or weakened through exposure to significant others”.	[62]
Demonstration of clinical skills, modelling and articulation of expert thought processes and manifestation of positive professional characteristics	[63]
Interactional, transactional process, which occurs simultaneously with multiple models and changes over time.	[64]
Teaching and Tutoring
Clinical skills training and knowledge transfer	[65–71]
Professional outcome-based assessment	[66, 70, 71]
Feedback provided for students after teaching or tutoring	[65, 66]
Standardized program structure	[67, 68]
Coaching
Individualized	[72–81]
Safe space for coached to make mistakes and learn	[73, 76, 77, 82, 83]
Deliberate teaching with focused goals	[75, 82, 84–86]
Individualized feedback through observation	[74–77, 79, 81–91]
Repetition	[82, 87, 89, 90]
Supervision
Apprenticeship	[92]
Clinical care under the oversight of a more senior physician	[92]
Improve resident education through identifying trainee problems, provision of feedback and supporting trainee	[93–98]
Ensure effective and safe patient care	[92, 93, 99]