Table 1.
Summary of some characteristics of mosquito-borne arboviruses within the EAC.
| Family/Genus | Virus | Known mosquito host species | Location in the EAC a | Disease symptoms in humans | Known/Likely amplifying host | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bunyaviridae | ||||||
| Orthobunyavirus | Batai (BATV) | Aedes simpsoni, Culex gelidus, Anopheles barbirostris, An. maculipennis, Aedes punctor | Uganda, Sudan | Flu-like illness | N/A | [50,58,59,242] |
| Bunyamwera (BUNV) | Ae. circumluteolus, Ae. mcintoshi, An. funestus | Kenya, Uganda | Fever, headache, joint pain, rash | Geese and other water birds | [4,32,58,88] | |
| Bwamba (BWAV) | Ae. furcifer, An. coustani, An. funestus, An. gambiae, Mansonia uniformis | Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda | Fever, headache, backache, fatal hemorrhagic complications | N/A | [36–40,46,78,88] | |
| Germiston (GERV) | Cx. rubinotus | Uganda | Fever, headache, lower back pain | N/A | [4,188] | |
| Ilesha (ILEV) | An. Gambiae | Uganda | Fever, headache, myalgia, fatal meningo-encephalitis | N/A | [4,17,18] | |
| Ngari (NRIV) | Ae. mcintoshi, Ae. simpsoni, An. funestus | Kenya, Sudan, Tanzania | Fatal hemorrhagic fever | N/A | [32,49,58] | |
| Nyando (NDV) | An. funestus | Kenya, Uganda | Moderate to severe febrile illness | N/A | [19,20] | |
| Pongola (PGAV) | Ae. circumluteolus, Ae. mcintoshi | Uganda, Kenya | Fever, headache, joint pains | N/A | [21,133] | |
| Witwatersrand (WITV) | Cx. robinotus | Uganda | N/A | Birds suspected | [4,188] | |
| Phlebovirus | Rift Valley fever (RVFV) | Ae. aegypti, Ae. caballus, Ae. cumminsii, Ae. circumluteolus, Ae. dentatus, Ae. juppi, Ae. mcintoshi, Ae. ochraceus, Ae. pembaensis, An. squamosus, Cx. bitaeniorhyncus, Cx. quinquefasciatus, Cx. poicilipes, Cx. theileri, Cx. univittatus, Cx. zombaensis, Eretmapodites quinquevittatus, Mansonia africana, Mansonia uniformis | Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda, South Sudan. | Mild febrile illness with malaise, headache, myalgia, nausea, severe symptoms can be fatal | Cattle, Sheep, goats | [4,22–24,69,70,75] |
| Flaviviridae | ||||||
| Flavivirus | Banzi (BANV) | Cx. rubinotus | Kenya, Tanzania | Febrile illness | Rodents likely | [85,88,90,218] |
| Dengue (DENV) | Ae. aegypti, Ae. albopictus | Kenya, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda | Arthlagia, fever, severe headache, retro-orbital pain, myalagia, and maculopapular rash. For DHF, bleeding, high fever, persistent vomiting, and intense abdominal pains | Originally non-human primates, but currently humans | [98,100,108,111,113,114,201] | |
| Ntaya (NTAV) | Culex spp. | Kenya, Uganda | Headache, fever, rigors, myalgia | N/A | [121–123] | |
| Uganda S (UGSV) | Ae. longipalpis | Uganda | N/A | N/A | [92,93] | |
| Usutu (USUV) | Ae. albopictus, Ae. caspius, An. maculipennis, Coquellittidia aurites, Cx. neavei, Cx. perexiguus, Cx. perfuscus, Cx. quinquefasciatus, Mansonia africana, Cx. pipiens, Cx. univittatus, | Kenya, Uganda | Fever, rash, jaundice, neuroinvassion | Birds, horses, and possibly bats | [4,130,132] | |
| West Nile (WNV) | Cx. modestus, Cx. neavei, Cx. perexiguus, Cx. pipiens, Cx. quinquefasciatus, Cx. univittatus, Cx. theileri | Kenya, Rwanda, South Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda | Febrile illness associated with fever, headache, rash, muscle pains, myalgia, joint pains and arthralgia; severe infections may result in paralysis, seizures, or cerebellar ataxia that can cause neurological impairment | Birds | [142–150] | |
| Yellow fever (YFV) | Ae. Aegypti, Ae. africanus, Ae. albopictus, Ae. furcifer/taylori, Ae. leucocelaenus, Ae. luteocephalus, Ae. metallicus, Ae. opok, Ae. simpsoni Complex, Ae. vittatus, Haemagogus capricorni, Haemagogus equines, Haemagogus janthinomys, Haemagogus leucocelanus, Haemagogus mesodentatus, Haemagogus spegazzinii, Sabethes chloropterus | Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, South Sudan, Uganda | Mild symptoms are nonspecific and include fever, headache and constitutional problems. Severe cases include, fever, headache, lower back pain, chills, malaise, nausea, generalized myalgia, and dizziness, often manifesting Faget’s sign (increasing temperature with decreasing pulse rate) | Monkeys, chimpanzees, mangabey, baboons, bush babies, capuchin, marmosets, spiders, howler, and possibly hedgehogs | [4,8,153,156–158,160,163,165,167] | |
| Zika (ZIKV) | Ae. aegypti, Ae. africanus, Ae. albopictus, Ae. furcifer, Ae. jamoti, Ae. opok, Ae. flavicollis, Ae. grahami, Ae. taeniorostris, Ae. tarsalis, Ae. vittatus, Ae. dalziella, Ae. fowleri, Ae. luteocephalus, Ae. metallicus, Ae. minimus, Ae. neoafricanus, An. gambiae, Eretmapodites inornatus, Eretmapodites quinquevittatus, Mansonia uniformis | Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda | Common symptoms include, arthralgia, myalgia, fever, rash, fatigue, edema, conjunctivitis, and headache | Different species on non-human primates | [4,25,26,149,174,177–179] | |
| Togaviridae | ||||||
| Alphavirus | Babanki (BBKV) | Ae. africanus, Ae. mcintoshi, Ae. ochraceus, Ae. simpsoni, Culex spp. | Kenya, Uganda | Febrile illness accompanied by rash and arthritis | N/A | [55,133,188,189] |
| Chikungunya (CHIKV) | Ae. aegypti, Ae. africanus, Ae. albopictus, Ae. cordellieri, Ae. furcifer, Ae. fulgens, Ae. luteocephalus, Ae. neoafricanus, Ae. taylori, Ae. vittatus | Burundi, Kenya, South Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda | Common symptoms: fever, headache, rash, arthralgia, and myalgia. Less common symptoms: vomiting, diarrhea, hemorrhage, and inflammation of the ear and ocular disease. Severe manifestations may be fatal and include, myocarditis, neurological disease and multiorgan failure. |
Non-human primates, humans | [115,149,192,195–197,200–202] | |
| Ndumu (NDUV) | Ae. circumluteolus, Ae. mcintoshi, Ae. ochraceus, Ae. sudanensis Ae. tricholabis, Cx. rubinotus, Mansonia uniformis | Kenya, Uganda | N/A | N/A | [133,214,219] | |
| O’nyong-nyong (ONNV) | An. funestus, An. gambiae, Mansonia uniformis | Kenya, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, | Acute fever, joint pains, skin rash, lymphadenopathy, immobilization for up to 4 days, arthralgia | N/A | [220–222,226] | |
| Semliki Forest (SFV) | Ae. abnormalis-group, Ae. argenteopunctatus | Uganda | Mild febrile illness, encephalitis | N/A | [229,230,232,233] | |
| Sindbis (SINV) | Cx. univittatus, Cx. neavei, Cx. pipiens, Cx. torrentium, Culiseta morsitans, Coquillettidia fuscopennata, Mansonia fuscopennata | Kenya, Uganda | Febrile illness, fever, arthritis, maculo-papular rash | Birds | [4,236,237,244] |
aViruses with Sudan as a country were islolated before South Sudan gained independence in 9 July 2011