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. 2019 Nov 29;2:446. doi: 10.1038/s42003-019-0694-x

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© The Author(s) 2019

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 1 — a, b Spatial learning and memory in wild-type SD rats trained in the MWM (n = 10 per group). c Brain formaldehyde fluorescence revealed by the in vivo imaging system. NaFA: a fluorescence probe of free formaldehyde, n = 3. d Hippocampal formaldehyde (FA) levels detected by Fluo-HPLC (n = 10). e An in vivo LTP recording in CA1 from Schaffer collateral stimulation and 3D views of the hippocampus (yellow). SE stimulating electrode, RE recording electrode. f Late-LTP (L-LTP) formation in vivo. n = 8, HFS high-frequency stimulation. g Brain formaldehyde revealed by the in vivo imaging system, n = 3. h Hippocampal formaldehyde levels detected by Fluo-HPLC (n = 6). i The pathway of formaldehyde metabolism. SARDH sarcosine dehydrogenase, ALDH2 aldehyde dehydrogenase. j Colocalization of SARDH (red) and the mitochondrial marker- Cox IV (green) in the cultured hippocampal neurons. DAPI: blue, a nuclear dye. k, l The cultured medium sarcosine and formaldehyde levels detected by Fluo-HPLC. SA sarcosine, MA methoxyacetic acid, an inhibitor of SARDH, n = 6. m Intracellular infusion of the mitochondrial formaldehyde probe (mito-FA-probe). n A train of 20 pulses in the presynaptic neurons induced multiple action potentials in the postsynaptic neurons, n = 8. o The active formaldehyde generated from mitochondria in the axon, synapse and soma of the cultured neurons imaged by the mito-FA probe, n = 6. p The model of endogenous formaldehyde-enhanced memory formation. The data are expressed as the mean ± standard error (s.e.m.). ***p < 0.001; ****p < 0.0001.