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. 2019 Nov 29;2:446. doi: 10.1038/s42003-019-0694-x

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© The Author(s) 2019

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 2 — a The metabolism pathway of formaldehyde precursors. GAMT guanidinoacetate methyltransferase, SARDH sarcosine dehydrogenase (a formaldehyde-generating enzyme), ALDH2 aldehyde dehydrogenase (a formaldehyde-degrading enzyme), FA formaldehyde, CT creatine, SA sarcosine. b Hippocampal formaldehyde levels quantified by HPLC-Fluo 30 min after i.c.v. injection with medicines—creatine (200 μM), sarcosine (200 μM), and formaldehyde (50 μM) (n = 6). c, d The fEPSP traces at 60 and 120 min (c) and enhancement of hippocampal long-term potentiation (LTP) (d) by infusion of above medicines (n = 8). e After 6 days of MWM training, repeated measures two-way ANOVA revealed a difference in group: F_{(3, 36)} = 32.43, p < 0.001, time: F_{(5, 203)} = 74.98, p < 0.001, and a group/time interaction: F_{(15, 203)} = 6.32, p < 0.001. Post hoc tests showed that the mean escape latency values for the CT- and SA-injected group were significantly shorter than the control group on days 4, 5 and 6, t (36) = 5.17, p < 0.01; and FA-injected group had shorter escape latency than the control group on days 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, t (36) = 7.11, p < 0.01, respectively. f The CT-, SA-, and FA-injected mice had longer staying times in target quadrant than control (wild-type mice) (t (36) = 9.29, p < 0.001, n = 10 mice per group). g, h The effects of Ifen and APV on spatial memory assayed by MWM (n = 10, rat per group). Ifenprodil (Ifen, 10 μM, a specific antagonist of NR2B); DL-2-amino-5-phosphonovaleric acid (APV, 50 μM, a nonspecific antagonist of NMDA-R). i–l The effects of extracellular or intracellular infusion of various formaldehyde concentrations on NMDA currents in the cultured hippocampal neurons (n = 9−13). Data are expressed as the mean ± standard error (s.e.m.). ***p < 0.001; ****p < 0.0001.