Table 1.
Sociodemographic characteristics of the study participants by visual function (n = 359,984).
| Characteristics | No Visual Impairment (n = 359,523) | Mild Visual Impairment (n = 328) | Severe Visual Impairment (n = 133) | p-Value a |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sex | ||||
| Men | 194,785 (54.2) | 197 (60.1) | 70 (52.6) | 0.10 |
| Women | 164,738 (45.8) | 131 (39.9) | 63 (47.4) | |
| Household income (deciles) | ||||
| 0–3 | 73,251 (20.4) | 80 (24.4) | 25 (18.8) | 0.41 |
| 4–7 | 115,402 (32.1) | 104 (31.7) | 46 (34.6) | |
| 8–10 | 170,870 (47.5) | 144 (43.9) | 62 (46.6) | |
| Body mass index (kg/m2) | ||||
| <18.5 | 7848 (2.2) | 19 (5.8) | 7 (5.3) | <0.01 |
| 18.5–22.9 | 125,809 (35.0) | 114 (34.8) | 48 (36.1) | |
| 23–24.9 | 100,866 (28.1) | 93 (28.4) | 32 (24.1) | |
| ≥25 | 124,894 (34.8) | 102 (31.1) | 46 (34.6) | |
| Smoking status | ||||
| Non-smoker | 227,957 (64.5) | 229 (70.0) | 89 (68.5) | 0.04 |
| Ex-smoker | 65,591 (18.5) | 63 (19.3) | 21 (16.2) | |
| Smoker | 60,142 (17.0) | 35 (10.7) | 20 (15.4) | |
| Alcohol consumption | ||||
| None | 215,080 (60.3) | 234 (71.6) | 99 (74.4) | <0.01 |
| 1–2 times/week | 91,879 (25.7) | 47 (14.4) | 20 (15.0) | |
| 3–4 times/week | 32,086 (9.0) | 21 (6.4) | 8 (6.0) | |
| ≥5 times/week | 17,876 (5.0) | 25 (7.7) | 6 (4.5) | |
| Physical activity | ||||
| None | 211,833 (59.3) | 258 (79.1) | 101 (76.5) | <0.01 |
| 1–2 times/week | 78,179 (21.9) | 36 (11.0) | 20 (15.2) | |
| 3–4 times/week | 39,323 (11.0) | 7 (2.2) | 3 (2.3) | |
| ≥5 times/week | 28,044 (7.9) | 25 (7.7) | 8 (6.1) | |
| History of stroke | ||||
| No | 253,662 (98.2) | 251 (93.7) | 97 (93.3) | <0.01 |
| Yes | 4638 (1.8) | 17 (6.3) | 7 (6.7) | |
| History of heart disease | ||||
| No | 246,268 (95.3) | 246 (92.1) | 94 (90.4) | <0.01 |
| Yes | 12,137 (4.7) | 21 (7.9) | 10 (9.6) | |
| History of hypertension | ||||
| No | 164,856 (63.5) | 133 (49.4) | 49 (46.7) | <0.01 |
| Yes | 94,633 (36.5) | 136 (50.6) | 56 (53.3) | |
| History of type 2 diabetes | ||||
| No | 227,279 (87.9) | 212 (79.1) | 82 (78.1) | <0.01 |
| Yes | 31,401 (12.1) | 56 (20.9) | 23 (21.9) | |
| History of dyslipidemia | ||||
| No | 242,507 (93.8) | 251 (94.0) | 98 (92.5) | 0.84 |
| Yes | 16,087 (6.2) | 16 (6.0) | 8 (7.6) | |
| History of other diseases including cancer | ||||
| No | 229,876 (88.9) | 219 (82.0) | 88 (84.6) | <0.01 |
| Yes | 28,576 (11.1) | 48 (18.0) | 16 (15.4) | |
| Age (years) | 59.0 ± 8.8 | 72.5 ± 8.8 | 68.9 ± 9.2 | <0.01 |
| Waist circumference (cm) | 82.0 ± 8.2 | 83.0 ± 8.9 | 82.9 ± 8.5 | 0.05 |
| Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) | 125.3 ± 15.2 | 130.5 ± 16.3 | 129.1 ± 16.3 | <0.01 |
| Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg) | 77.6 ± 9.9 | 78.6 ± 9.9 | 77.9 ± 10.8 | 0.18 |
| Fasting serum glucose level (mg/dL) | 101.2 ± 25.3 | 106.7 ± 32.1 | 104.4 ± 26.2 | <0.01 |
| Serum creatinine level (mg/dL) | 1.1 ± 1.2 | 1.1 ± 1.0 | 1.0 ± 1.0 | 0.94 |
| AST level (U/L) | 26.5 ± 18.4 | 25.9 ± 10.0 | 27.4 ± 14.3 | 0.71 |
| ALT level (U/L) | 25.1 ± 19.1 | 21.9 ± 12.1 | 23.2 ± 15.6 | <0.01 |
| γ-GT level (U/L) | 38.2 ± 53.6 | 30.9 ± 23.8 | 36.1 ± 36.6 | 0.04 |
Note. ALT = alanine aminotransferase; AST = aspartate aminotransferase; γ-GT = gamma glutamyltransferase. Values are presented as n (%) for categorical variables and mean ± standard deviation for continuous variables. a p-values were estimated by Chi-square test for categorical variables and ANOVA test for continuous variables.