Table 1.
Facets of traditional and modern eating mentioned in previous research and in our group discussions as well as their assignment to the 12 subdimensions and 2 dimensions
| Facets | Source (Reference; D = Group discussion) | T/Ma |
|---|---|---|
| Dimension What People Eat | ||
| Subdimension Ingredients | ||
| High consumption of energy-dense foods |
Dubé et al. (2014) [31]; Monteiro et al. (2013) [1] D |
M |
| Consuming diet drinks or foods | D | M |
| High consumption of refined foods | Chopra et al. (2002) [10]; Popkin (2003) [8]; Popkin & Gordon-Larsen (2004) [6]; Popkin et al. (2012) [3] | M |
| High consumption of basic foods like wheat, corn, or rice | D | T |
| High consumption of animal-source foods | Popkin (2003) [8]; Popkin & Gordon-Larsen (2004) [6]; Popkin et al. (2012) [3] | M |
| High consumption of plant-based foods | D | T |
| High consumption of grain | Chopra et al. (2002) [10]; Drewnowski & Popkin (1997) [5] | T |
| High consumption of fruit | Dubé et al. (2014) [31] | T |
| High consumption of vegetables | Dubé et al. (2014) [31]; Popkin et al. (2012) [3] | T |
| High consumption of fiber | Chopra et al. (2002) [10]; Dubé et al. (2014) [31]; Popkin (2003) [8]; Popkin & Gordon-Larsen (2004) [6] | T |
| High consumption of sugar and caloric sweeteners | Chopra et al. (2002) [10]; Drewnowski & Popkin (1997) [5]; Dubé et al. (2014) [31]; Monteiro et al. (2013) [1]; Popkin (2003) [8]; Popkin (2009) [9]; Popkin & Gordon-Larsen (2004) [6]; Popkin et al. (2012) [3] | M |
| Consuming artificial sweeteners (e.g., in diet drinks, to sweeten coffee or tea) | D | M |
| High consumption of oils and fats (especially trans fats and saturated fats) |
Chopra et al. (2002) [10]; Drewnowski & Popkin (1997) [5]; Dubé et al. (2014) [31]; Monteiro et al. (2013) [1]; Popkin (2003) [8]; Popkin (2009) [9]; Popkin & Gordon-Larsen (2004) [6]; Popkin et al. (2012) [3] D |
M |
| High consumption of salt | Monteiro et al. (2013) [1]; Popkin et al. (2012) [3] | M |
| Subdimension Processing | ||
| High consumption of industrially unprocessed foods | Monteiro et al. (2011) [40]; Popkin (2009) [9] | T |
| High consumption of fresh foods | D | T |
| High consumption of industrially ultra-processed foods |
Monteiro et al. (2013) [1]; Popkin (2003) [8]; Popkin (2009) [9] D |
M |
| Eating foods that are industrially mass-produced | Trichopoulou et al. (2007) [29] | M |
| High consumption of convenience products | Jabs & Devine (2006) [41] | M |
| Consumption of ultra-processed microwavable or frozen meals that were industrially produced | D | M |
| Consumption of fast foods | Jabs & Devine (2006) [41] | M |
| Consumption of soft drinks | Dubé et al. (2014) [31] | M |
| Eating foods with organic label | D | M |
| Subdimension Preparation | ||
| High consumption of foods that require a long preparation/cooking time | D | T |
| Knowing how to cook | D | T |
| High consumption of foods that was cooked by a woman | D | T |
| High consumption of foods that has been prepared at home |
Jabs & Devine (2006) [41] D |
T |
| Eating home-canned foods | D | T |
| Eating foods that have been prepared in grandmother’s way | Vanhonacker et al. (2010) [42] | T |
| Flavoring most of the foods in a way that is typical for your country/region | D | T |
| Consumption of foods that are seasoned at the table (e.g., with salt, pepper) | D | T |
| High consumption of foods that were prepared using time-saving preparation equipment such as microwave ovens, rice cookers, and bread machines | Jabs & Devine (2006) [41] | M |
| Availability of a lot of different ways to cook/heat up foods | D | M |
| High consumption of fried foods | Popkin (2009) [9] | M |
| High consumption of grilled foods | Popkin (2009) [9] | M |
| High consumption of ready-prepared foods | Jabs & Devine (2006) [41] | M |
| Eating take-away or delivered meals |
Popkin (2009) [9] D |
M |
| Subdimension Temporal Origin | ||
| High consumption of foods that have been eaten since the second World War | Trichopoulou et al. (2007) [29] | T |
| High consumption of foods that were known already by grandparents | D | T |
| High consumption of typical dishes | D | T |
| High consumption of foods from other countries’ cuisines | D | M |
| Eating pizza |
Pingali (2006) [43] D |
M |
| High consumption of foods that are recently produced | D | M |
| Consuming genetically modified foods | Lusk et al. (2005) [44] | M |
| Subdimension Spatial Origin | ||
| High consumption of local food products |
Trichopoulou et al. (2007) [29] D |
T |
| High consumption of seasonal foods | D | T |
| Consumption of global food products from mass production | Trichopoulou et al. (2007) [29]; Popkin et al. (2012) [3] | M |
| Food available everywhere | D | M |
| Buying most foods at markets or small family stores | D | T |
| High consumption of cheap food products from supermarkets; especially cheap meat products | D | M |
| All foodstuffs are purchased (as opposed to grown or raised by oneself) | D | M |
| Eating foods from vending machines | D | M |
| Subdimension Variety | ||
| Eating a diverse and varied diet | Drewnowski & Popkin (1997) [5] | M |
| Large number of food choices | D | M |
| Eating a large variety of different flavors | D | M |
| Eating a large variety of different types of fruits and vegetables | D | M |
| Eating a large variety within one type of fruit or vegetable | D | T |
| Dimension How People Eat | ||
| Subdimension Temporal Aspects | ||
| Taking time for eating | D | T |
| Eating an entire meal within 10 min or less | D | M |
| Regular/fixed mealtimes | Fjellström (2004) [45] | T |
| Eating at the same time in a family | D | T |
| Eating at traditional mealtimes |
Mestdag (2005) [46] D |
T |
| Consumption of main meals |
Fjellström (2004) [45] D |
T |
| Snacking |
Mestdag (2005) [46]; Popkin (2009) [9]; Zizza et al. (2001) [47] D |
M |
| Irregular/flexible mealtimes; skipping meals | D | M |
| Consumption of traditional dishes at celebrations/special occasions (e.g., Sundays, festivals) | D | T |
| Subdimension Spatial Aspects | ||
| Eating at home |
Jabs & Devine (2006) [41]; Popkin (2003) [8]; Popkin et al. (2012) [3] D |
T |
| Eating out of home | Popkin (2009) [9] | M |
| Eating in restaurants | Jabs & Devine (2006) [41]; Story et al. (2008) [4] | M |
| Eating in buffet restaurants | D | M |
| Eating on the run | Jabs & Devine (2006) [41]; Mestdag (2005) [46] | M |
| High consumption of foods to go | D | M |
| Eating while working | D | M |
| Subdimension Social Aspects | ||
| Eating together/ in company | D | T |
| Eating with family |
Jabs & Devine (2006) [41]; Mestdag (2005) [46] D |
T |
| Eating with colleagues | D | M |
| Eating alone | Fischler (2011) [48]; Kwon et al. (2018) [49] | M |
| Highly constraining, homogeneous collective rules | Fischler (1990) [50] | T |
| Eating is guided by social norms (Heteronomy) | Fischler (1990) [50] | T |
| Eating the same foods as the others when eating at home | D | T |
| Individualistic | D | M |
| Men get preferential treatment over women at mealtimes | D | T |
| Eating while being served foods by others | D | T |
| Larger family events center on meals | D | T |
| Having conversations while eating | D | T |
| Subdimension Meals | ||
| Lunch or dinner as main meal of the day | D | T |
| Meals end with a sweet dessert | D | T |
| Foods that are eaten for breakfast differ largely from foods that are eaten for other meals | D | M |
| Drinking soft drinks during the main meal (e.g., cola) | D | M |
| Consumption of larger portion sizes | Benson (2009) [51] | M |
| Subdimension Appreciation | ||
| Appreciation of foods | D | T |
| More food waste | D | M |
| Dissociation: not knowing where foods come from, and what is in them | D | M |
| Table manners | D | T |
| Eating in a way that shows respect for others at the table | D | T |
| Doing something else while eating | Jabs & Devine (2006) [41] | M |
| Using plastic utensils (e.g., plastic forks) | D | M |
| Subdimension Concerns | ||
| Major concern: availability and quantity of food | Fischler (1990) [50] | T |
| Concern about whether foods are spoiled | D | T |
| Major concern: quality of food | Fischler (1990) [50] | M |
| Intuitive eating | D | T |
| Analytical eating | D | M |
| Interest in nutrition and consumer education | D | M |
| Interest in food & health labels | D | M |
| Trouble deciding what to eat | Fischler (1990) [50] | M |
| Concerns about eating too much | D | M |
Note. a T refers to when a facet was mentioned as part of traditional eating by the respective reference(s) or in the group discussions; M refers to when a facet was mentioned as part of modern eating respectively