TABLE 4.
Estimates of Cognitive, Language, Academic, and Executive Functioning Outcomes and SSI Benefit Received Among 18-Year-Old Youth in the Intervention and Control Conditions
| Variable | Group | Child Age at Assessment,a y | Control, T2 | NV, T4 | T4–T2 | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| N | LS Meanb or % (SE) | N | LS Meanb or % (SE) | ESc or aOR (95% CI) | P | |||
| Primary outcome | ||||||||
| Nonverbal intelligence | Whole | 18 | 431 | LS mean 88.25 (0.62) | 192 | LS mean 88.47 (0.93) | ES 0.02 (−0.17 to 0.20) | .85 |
| LPRd | 18 | 227 | LS mean 86.37 (0.86) | 106 | LS mean 87.41 (1.26) | ES 0.09 (−0.16 to 0.34) | .49 | |
| Whole | Alle | 454 | LS mean 88.65 (0.47) | 204 | LS mean 89.58 (0.71) | ES 0.08 (−0.06 to 0.22) | .27 | |
| LPRd | Alle | 237 | LS mean 87.16 (0.66) | 111 | LS mean 88.69 (0.98) | ES 0.13 (−0.06 to 0.32) | .19 | |
| Receptive language | Whole | 18 | 427 | LS mean 81.60 (0.69) | 194 | LS mean 82.34 (1.03) | ES 0.05 (−0.12 to 0.23) | .55 |
| LPRd | 18 | 223 | LS mean 79.02 (0.96) | 108 | LS mean 82.32 (1.39) | ES 0.24 (0.00 to 0.47) | .05** | |
| Whole | Alle | 454 | LS mena 82.08 (0.56) | 204 | LS mean 83.33 (0.83) | ES 0.09 (−0.05 to 0.23) | .21 | |
| LPRd | Alle | 237 | LS mean 79.91 (0.78) | 111 | LS mean 82.79 (1.14) | ES 0.21 (0.02 to 0.40) | .03** | |
| Math achievement score | Whole | 18 | 428 | LS mean 80.38 (0.59) | 193 | LS mean 82.22 (0.88) | ES 0.15 (−0.02 to 0.32) | .08* |
| LPRd | 18 | 225 | LS mean 78.18 (0.82) | 108 | LS mean 82.73 (1.19) | ES 0.38 (0.14 to 0.61) | .002*** | |
| Whole | Allf | 454 | LS mean 85.22 (0.47) | 205 | LS mean 86.54 (0.71) | ES 0.11 (−0.03 to 0.25) | .12 | |
| LPRd | Allf | 237 | LS mean 82.89 (0.66) | 111 | LS mean 86.70 (0.98) | ES 0.31 (0.13 to 0.50) | .001*** | |
| Secondary outcome | ||||||||
| Sustained attention | Whole | 18 | 432 | LS mean 8.68 (0.13) | 194 | LS mean 8.77 (0.19) | ES 0.03 (−0.13 to 0.20) | .67 |
| LPRd | 18 | 227 | LS mean 8.22 (0.18) | 108 | LS mean 8.60 (0.26) | ES 0.14 (−0.08 to 0.36) | .22 | |
| Whole | Allg | 443 | LS mean 8.68 (0.12) | 199 | LS mean 8.67 (0.18) | ES −0.00 (−0.15 to 0.15) | .97 | |
| LPRd | Allg | 232 | LS mean 8.45 (0.17) | 110 | LS mean 8.57 (0.24) | ES 0.04 (−0.16 to 0.24) | .67 | |
| Working memory index | Whole | 18 | 432 | LS mean 8.33 (0.13) | 194 | LS mean 8.66 (0.19) | ES 0.12 (−0.04 to 0.29) | .15 |
| LPRd | 18 | 227 | LS mean 7.90 (0.18) | 108 | LS mean 8.51 (0.26) | ES 0.23 (0.01 to 0.46) | .04** | |
| Emotion recognition, no. correct | Whole | 18 | 427 | LS mean 52.55 (0.37) | 190 | LS mean 53.75 (0.56) | ES 0.14 (−0.01 to 0.30) | .08* |
| LPRd | 18 | 225 | LS mean 52.32 (0.52) | 104 | LS mean 54.19 (0.77) | ES 0.22 (0.01 to 0.44) | .04** | |
| Risky decision-making | Whole | 18 | 430 | LS mean 5.23 (0.19) | 193 | LS mean 4.92 (0.29) | ES −0.08 (−0.25 to 0.10) | .38 |
| LPRd | 18 | 227 | LS mean 5.02 (0.27) | 107 | LS mean 4.95 (0.39) | ES −0.02 (−0.25 to 0.21) | .88 | |
| High school graduation | Whole | 18 | 431 | 71.8% (2.22) | 188 | 75.5% (3.26) | aOR 1.21 (0.81 to 1.82) | .35 |
| LPR | 18 | 227 | 70.3% (3.14) | 106 | 71.4% (4.51) | aOR 1.06 (0.63 to 1.76) | .83 | |
| Graduate with honorsh | Whole | 18 | 431 | 4.4% (1.05) | 188 | 8.8% (2.12) | aOR 2.12 (1.09 to 4.13) | .03** |
| LPR | 18 | 227 | 2.5% (0.99) | 106 | 8.0% (2.70) | aOR 3.34 (1.19 to 9.34) | .02** | |
| SSI: disabilityh | Whole | 18 | 429 | 5.8% (1.30) | 190 | 3.4 %(1.27) | aOR 0.58 (0.25 to 1.34) | .19 |
| LPRd | 18 | 226 | 10.9% (2.21) | 104 | 3.9% (1.70) | aOR 0.33 (0.13 to 0.84) | .01** | |
The estimates of intervention-control differences averaged over all other fixed classification variables, including those within subjects, and the same treatment effect were restricted to the group defined by LPR. This table shows the least-squares means at 18 y and repeated measures over time (labeled “all” under “age at assessment”), which also are averaged over other fixed classification effects. For estimates of treatment effects based on repeated measures, we assumed an error structure with different variances at each time for a given child and a different covariance between pairs of times within each child. These were assumed to be the same for all children, and covariance between children was assumed to be negligible. Contrasts at specific, earlier time points are presented in earlier publications.11–16 LS, least squares; T2, prenatal transportation plus developmental screening and referral.; T4, prenatal transportation plus developmental screening and referral and prenatal and infant and/or toddler nurse home visits.
Age 18 assessment denoted by 18 y; repeated-measures assessment denoted by “all.” The exact ages aggregated for repeated-measures estimates are given in footnotes.
Adjusted.
Expressed in SD units.
Subgroup defined by youth mothers falling into the lower half of the distribution for PR (LPR).
Ages 6 and 18.
Ages 6, 12, and 18.
Ages 12 and 18.
Exploratory outcome.
P < .10; ** P < .05; *** P < .01.