TABLE 5.
Estimates of Youth Substance-Use Disorders, Drug or Alcohol Use, STIs, Pregnancies, Births, Behavioral Problems, Arrests, Convictions, and Gang Activity
| Variable | Group | Child Age at Assessment, y | Control, T2 | NV, T4 | T4–T2 | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| N | LS Meana or % (SE) | N | LS Meana or % (SE) | ES,b aOR, IR, or HR (95% CI) | P | |||
| Primary outcome | ||||||||
| Time to substance-use disorderc,d | Whole | 18 | 435 | 10.5% (1.41) | 194 | 13.2% (2.22) | HR 1.28 (0.85 to 1.93) | .24 |
| Current drug use SR past month or positive laboratory test resulte | Whole | 18 | 423 | 48.4% (2.49) | 190 | 51.1% (3.73) | aOR 1.11 (0.78 to 1.58) | .55 |
| Time to first pregnancyc,d | Males | 18 | 210 | 17.2% (2.56) | 95 | 15.0% (3.30) | HR 0.86 (0.51 to 1.46) | .57 |
| Females | 18 | 225 | 26.4% (2.92) | 99 | 22.8% (3.95) | HR 0.85 (0.54 to 1.32) | .46 | |
| Time to first live birthc,d | Males | 18 | 210 | 6.3% (1.60) | 95 | 7.5% (2.37) | HR 1.20 (0.58 to 2.49) | .62 |
| Females | 18 | 225 | 16.8% (2.45) | 99 | 13.7% (3.21) | HR 0.80 (0.46 to 1.41) | .44 | |
| Any positive STI laboratory test result | Males | 18 | 198 | 15.4% (2.58) | 88 | 14.8% (3.82) | aOR 0.95 (0.47 to 1.94) | .89 |
| Females | 18 | 220 | 22.8% (2.87) | 99 | 25.5% (4.47) | aOR 1.16 (0.66 to 2.04) | .60 | |
| HIV risk (log transformed) | Whole | 18 | 417 | LS mean −13.50 (0.17) | 187 | LS mean −13.77 (0.26) | ES −0.08 (−0.25 to 0.10) | .38 |
| Internalizing behavior problemsf,g | Whole | 18 | 431 | 17.7% (1.93) | 194 | 16.5% (2.79) | aOR 0.92 (0.57 to 1.48) | .73 |
| Whole | Allj | 459 | 20.4% (1.35) | 207 | 17.4% (1.85) | aOR 0.82 (0.61 to 1.11) | .19 | |
| No. arrestsc | Whole | 18 | 435 | LS mean 0.35 (0.05) | 194 | LS mean 0.36 (0.08) | IR 1.02 (0.61 to 1.70) | .93 |
| Females | 18 | 225 | LS mean 0.23 (0.05) | 99 | LS mean 0.19 (0.06) | IR 0.84 (0.39 to 1.81) | .65 | |
| No. convictionsc | Whole | 18 | 435 | LS mean 0.28 (0.04) | 194 | LS mean 0.24 (0.06) | IR 0.86 (0.50 to 1.47) | .59 |
| Females | 18 | 225 | LS mean 0.21 (0.04) | 99 | LS mean 0.10 (0.04) | IR 0.47 (0.20 to 1.11) | .08* | |
| No. interpersonal violence arrestsc | Whole | 18 | 435 | LS mean 0.14 (0.03) | 194 | LS mean 0.19 (0.05) | IR 1.39 (0.73 to 2.65) | .32 |
| Females | 18 | 225 | LS mean 0.09 (0.03) | 99 | LS mean 0.14 (0.05) | IR 1.48 (0.57 to 3.86) | .42 | |
| No. interpersonal violence convictionsc | Whole | 18 | 435 | LS mean 0.10 (0.02) | 194 | LS mean 0.13 (0.04) | IR 1.33 (0.66 to 2.65) | .43 |
| Females | 18 | 225 | LS mean 0.08 (0.02) | 99 | LS mean 0.07 (0.03) | IR 0.81 (0.28 to 2.34) | .69 | |
| Ever in a gangc | Whole | 18 | 432 | 8.5% (1.44) | 193 | 11.2% (2.31) | aOR 1.35 (0.80 to 2.28) | .27 |
| Secondary outcome | ||||||||
| Externalizing behavior problemsh | Whole | 18 | 424 | 7.4% (1.31) | 187 | 8.3% (2.08) | aOR 1.13 (0.59 to 2.17) | .72 |
| Whole | Allj | 459 | 14.1% (1.20) | 206 | 14.4% (1.80) | aOR 1.02 (0.72 to 1.44) | .91 | |
| Total behavior problemsg,h | Whole | 18 | 424 | 4.4% (1.01) | 187 | 6.8% (1.89) | aOR 1.60 (0.75 to 3.39) | .22 |
| Whole | Allj | 459 | 8.2% (0.95) | 206 | 7.7% (1.48) | aOR 0.94 (0.58 to 1.51) | .79 | |
The estimates of intervention-control differences averaged over all other fixed classification variables, including those within subjects, and the same treatment effect was restricted to the group defined by females for arrest and conviction outcomes. This table shows the least-squares means at 18 y and repeated measures over time, which also are averaged over other fixed classification effects. For estimates of treatment effects based on repeated measures (labeled “all” under “age at assessment”), we assumed an error structure with different variances at each time for a given child and different covariance between pairs of times within each child. These were assumed to be the same for all children, and covariance between children was assumed to be negligible. Contrasts at specific, earlier time points are presented in earlier publications.11–16 HR, hazards ratio; LS, least squares; SR, self-report; T2, prenatal transportation plus developmental screening and referral; T4, prenatal transportation plus developmental screening and referral and prenatal and infant and/or toddler nurse home visits.
Adjusted.
Expressed in SD units.
Arrest-related outcomes were based on self-report combined with maternal and other-caregiver report (when available).
Survival rate at age 18 from Cox proportional hazard model.
Based on both self-report for all substances and urine assays for specific substances: phencyclidine, benzodiazepines, cocaine, amphetamines, tetrahydrocannabinol, opiates, and barbiturates.
Internalizing problems were based on youth self-report at ages 12 and 18 and maternal and/or other-caregiver report at child age 6, indicated by values exceeding the borderline or clinical threshold.
Ages 6, 12, and 18.
Externalizing and total problems were based on reports in which mothers and/or other caregivers (age 6); mothers and/or other caregivers, teachers, and children (2 of 3 at age 12); and youth and mothers and/or other caregivers (age 18) reported scores that exceeded the borderline or clinical threshold.
P < .10.