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. 2019 Oct 17;16:30–41. doi: 10.1016/j.eclinm.2019.09.001

Table 5.

Odds ratio associated with risk factors for medical history-ascertained T2D complications and comorbidity in sub-Saharan Africa.

Complication/comorbidity Risk factor uORa 95% CI P-value aORb 95% CI P-value aORc 95% CI P-value
Diabetic coma Age (Years) 1.02 (1.01–1.03) 0.004 1.01 (1.00–1.02) 0.161 1.01 (1.00–1.03) 0.100
Sex (Ref = males) 0.84 (0.63–1.12) 0.246 0.95 (0.70–1.30) 0.756 1.00 (0.72–1.38) 0.983
BMI (Kg/m2) 0.96 (0.93–0.99) 0.004 0.96 (0.93–0.99) 0.005 0.96 (0.93–0.99) 0.008
Duration of T2D 1.05 (1.03–1.07) <0.001 1.04 (1.02–1.06) <0.001 1.04 (1.02–1.07) <0.001
Accra, Ghana 1.25 (0.88–1.78) 0.218 2.05 (1.17–3.59) 0.012 2.10 (1.19–3.68) 0.010
Kumasi, Ghana 0.69 (0.41–1.16) 0.160 1.13 (0.57–2.22) 0.731 1.13 (0.54–2.37) 0.748
Enugu, Nigeria 1.19 (0.81–1.76) 0.375 1.66 (0.93–2.96) 0.086 1.67 (0.93–3.00) 0.084
Ibadan, Nigeria 1.30 (0.97–1.74) 0.080 1.85 (1.12–3.05) 0.016 1.79 (1.08–2.97) 0.025
Lagos, Nigeria 0.61 (0.34–1.12) 0.110 0.92 (0.44–1.91) 0.815 0.97 (0.46–2.03) 0.937
Visual problems Age (Years) 1.00 (1.00–1.01) 0.195 1.01 (1.00–1.02) 0.002 1.02 (1.01–1.03) <0.001
Sex (Ref = males) 0.95 (0.81–1.11) 0.537 0.98 (0.82–1.17) 0.82 0.99 (0.82–1.19) 0.889
BMI (Kg/m2) 0.95 (0.94–0.97) <0.001 0.97 (0.95–0.98) <0.001 0.97 (0.95–0.98) <0.001
Duration of T2D 1.03 (1.02–1.04) <0.001 1.03 (1.02–1.04) <0.001 1.03 (1.01–1.04) <0.001
Accra, Ghana 1.34 (1.10–1.65) 0.004 1.63 (1.23–2.17) 0.001 1.65 (1.24–2.21) 0.001
Kumasi, Ghana 3.02 (2.30–3.98) <0.001 3.19 (2.27–4.47) <0.001 3.64 (2.49–5.31) <0.001
Enugu, Nigeria 2.79 (2.20–3.53) <0.001 2.58 (1.91–3.49) <0.001 2.62 (1.93–3.56) <0.001
Ibadan, Nigeria 0.51 (0.27–0.38) <0.001 0.51 (0.40–0.66) <0.001 0.43 (0.33–0.56) <0.001
Lagos, Nigeria 0.87 (0.66–1.13) 0.295 0.92 (0.661.28) 0.622 0.91 (0.65–1.29) 0.609
Non-healing ulcers Age (Years) 1.00 (0.98–1.01) 0.742 1.00 (0.98–1.01) 0.603 1.00 (0.98–1.02) 0.775
Sex (Ref = males) 0.71 (0.50–1.00) 0.052 0.64 (0.43–0.93) 0.020 0.57 (0.38–0.87) 0.009
BMI (Kg/m2) 0.97 (0.94–1.01) 0.102 0.99 (0.96–1.03) 0.730 1.01 (0.97–1.05) 0.763
Duration of T2D 1.02 (1.00–1.05) 0.044 1.03 (1.00–1.06) 0.027 1.02 (1.00–1.05) 0.098
Accra, Ghana 1.17 (0.75–1.81) 0.494 2.10 (1.00–4.37) 0.049 2.05 (0.98–4.29) 0.058
Kumasi, Ghana 2.52 (1.63–3.88) 0.000 4.17 (2.01–8.63) <0.001 4.70 (2.20–10.06) <0.001
Enugu, Nigeria 1.11 (0.68–1.80) 0.688 1.90 (0.90–4.04) 0.100 1.84 (0.86–3.94) 0.117
Ibadan, Nigeria 0.88 (0.52–1.13) 0.549 1.48 (0.74–2.94) 0.263 1.07 (0.52–2.22) 0.847
Lagos, Nigeria 0.55 (0.25–1.19) 0.127 0.93 (0.36–2.45) 0.888 0.81 (0.30–2.24) 0.691
Amputation Age (Years) 1.03 (0.99–1.06) 0.118 1.02 (0.98–1.06) 0.368 1.02 (0.98–1.06) 0.282
Sex (Ref = males) 0.57 (0.28–1.17) 0.124 0.62 (0.28–1.37) 0.239 0.65 (0.29–1.46) 0.298
BMI (Kg/m2) 0.96 (0.89–1.03) 0.230 0.97 (0.89–1.05) 0.391 0.98 (0.90–1.06) 0.548
Duration of T2D 1.08 (1.04–1.12) <0.001 1.07 (1.02–1.12) 0.003 1.07 (1.03–1.12) 0.002
Accra, Ghana 2.07 (0.94–4.55) 0.070 1.31 (0.46–3.76) 0.611 1.37 (0.47–3.97) 0.565
Kumasi, Ghana 0.93 (0.28–3.09) 0.907 0.73 (0.18–2.96) 0.663 1.01 (0.25–4.16) 0.984
Enugu, Nigeria 0.94 (0.32–2.70) 0.903 0.65 (0.19–2.25) 0.492 0.70 (0.20–2.45) 0.574
Ibadan, Nigeria 0.85 (0.25–1.37) 0.729 0.37 (0.12–1.12) 0.077 0.34 (0.11–1.10) 0.072
Lagos, Nigeriad
Stocking/glove numbness Age (Years) 1.02 (1.01–1.02) <0.001 1.02 (1.01–1.02) <0.001 1.02 (1.01–1.03) <0.001
Sex (Ref = males) 1.17 (1.00–1.37) 0.047 1.21 (1.02–1.44) 0.03 1.26 (1.05–1.50) 0.012
BMI (Kg/m2) 0.98 (0.96–0.99) 0.001 0.99 (0.97–1.00) 0.126 0.99 (0.97–1.00) 0.100
Duration of T2D 1.03 (1.02–1.04) <0.001 1.03 (1.02–1.04) <0.001 1.02 (1.01–1.04) <0.001
Accra, Ghana 0.76 (0.62–0.93) 0.008 0.89 (0.67–1.17) 0.402 0.90 (0.67–1.19) 0.446
Kumasi, Ghana 2.75 (2.11–3.59) <0.001 2.80 (2.02–3.89) <0.001 2.91 (2.03–4.19) <0.001
Enugu, Nigeria 1.91 (1.52–2.39) <0.001 1.91 (1.43–2.56) <0.001 1.88 (1.40–2.53) <0.001
Ibadan, Nigeria 0.96 (0.63–0.87) 0.669 0.86 (0.67–1.09) 0.210 0.77 (0.60–0.98) 0.035
Lagos, Nigeria 0.50 (0.38–0.67) <0.001 0.59 (0.42–0.83) 0.003 0.60 (0.43–0.86) 0.005
TIA/Stroke Age (Years) 1.03 (1.01–1.06) 0.003 1.04 (1.02–1.07) 0.001 1.04 (1.01–1.07) 0.003
Sex (Ref = males) 1.14 (0.70–1.86) 0.592 1.10 (0.65–1.88) 0.721 1.10 (0.62–1.96) 0.747
BMI (Kg/m2) 0.99 (0.95–1.04) 0.711 0.99 (0.94–1.04) 0.742 0.99 (0.93–1.04) 0.627
Duration of T2D 1.00 (0.97–1.04) 0.961 0.99 (0.95–1.03) 0.512 0.99 (0.95–1.03) 0.709
Accra, Ghana 1.32 (0.76–2.31) 0.325 5.68 (1.62–19.91) 0.007 5.71 (1.62–20.10) 0.007
Kumasi, Ghana 1.89 (1.04–3.43) 0.038 7.89 (2.22–28.06) 0.001 6.94 (1.83–26.32) 0.004
Enugu, Nigeria 1.61 (0.91–2.85) 0.099 6.16 (1.76–21.53) 0.004 6.24 (1.78–21.84) 0.004
Ibadan, Nigeria 0.79 (0.44–1.41) 0.425 3.23 (0.93–11.26) 0.066 2.37 (0.65–8.72) 0.193
Lagos, Nigeria 0.67 (0.27–1.69) 0.400 3.15 (0.74–13.34) 0.12 2.53 (0.56–11.48) 0.229
Erectile dysfunctione Age (Years) 1.02 (1.00–1.03) 0.007 1.02 (1.00–1.03) 0.007 1.02 (1.01–1.04) 0.001
BMI (Kg/m2) 0.98 (0.95–1.01) 0.186 0.99 (0.96–1.03) 0.647 1.00 (0.97–1.04) 0.804
Duration of T2D 1.05 (1.03–1.07) <0.001 1.05 (1.03–1.07) <0.001 1.04 (1.02–1.07) <0.001
Accra, Ghana 0.98 (0.67–1.44) 0.906 1.10 (0.68–1.78) 0.709 1.03 (0.63–1.68) 0.904
Kumasi, Ghana 3.38 (2.08–5.49) 0.000 3.62 (2.02–6.48) <0.001 3.52 (1.88–6.57) <0.001
Enugu, Nigeria 1.33 (0.94–1.88) 0.106 1.30 (0.83–2.04) 0.243 1.27 (0.81–1.99) 0.306
Ibadan, Nigeria 0.61 (0.33–0.58) 0.001 0.51 (0.34–0.77) 0.001 0.39 (0.25–0.60) <0.001
Lagos, Nigeria 1.59 (1.08–2.35) 0.020 1.62 (0.99–2.64) 0.055 1.54 (0.93–2.55) 0.095
a

uOR, unadjusted odds ratio from logistic regression model.

b

aOR, adjusted odds ratio from logistic regression model including all variables listed.

c

aOR, adjusted odds ratio from logistic regression model including all variables listed, plus glucose control (yes/no).

d

No amputations reported.

e

Men only. The reference site is Eldoret (Kenya).