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. 2019 Nov 27;29(4):421–449. doi: 10.1007/s11065-019-09419-2

Table 2.

Neuropsychological test results of the included studies per cognitive (sub)domain

Cognitive (sub)domain Reference Test-version Subtest/score N in analysis Results Absence Epilepsy Mean (SD) Results Control group# Mean (SD) P value or effect-size
Intelligence Lopes et al., 2013 WISC-III Full Scale IQ‡‡ 30 93.63 (17.47) 101.97 (13.89) NS
Masur et al., 2013 WISC-IV 321 (≥6 years of age) 94.1 (15.1)
WPPSI–III 99 (<6 years of age) 97.6 (16.2)
Gencpinar et al., 2016 WISC-R 19 95.79 (9.50) 105.74 (13.05) 0.359
D’Agati et al., 2012 WISC-III 15 93.5 (9.7) 97.2 (8.7) 0.177
Caplan et al., 2008 WISC-R/WISC-III 69 101 (15.61) 111 (13.22) < 0.0001*
Kernan et al., 2012 WISC-III 31 101 (16) 107 (12) NS
Nolan et al., 2004 Stanford-Binet-IV/WISC-R/WISC-III 13 93.4 (29.25)
Pavone et al., 2001 WISC-R 13 90.8 (15.4) 103.2 (6.3) < 0.01*
Conde-Guzon & Cancho-Candela, 2012 WISC-R 34 101.36 (12.93) 108.36 (8.23) NS
Verrotti et al., 2011† WISC-R/WPPSI-R 40 15% Decreased IQ
Franzoni et al., 2015† WISC/WPPSI 92 27% Cognitive impaired
Lopes et al., 2013 WISC-III Verbal IQ‡‡ 30 94.83 (15.71) 103.90 (12.75) NS
D’Agati et al., 2012 WISC-III 15 96.3 (8.5) 100.7 (8.9) 0.217
Caplan et al., 2008 WISC-R/WISC-III 69 100 (17.46) 112 (15.37) < 0.0001*
Conde-Guzon & Cancho-Candela, 2012 WISC-R 34 98.45 (12.83) 107.68 (7.9 0.021*
Pavone et al., 2001† WISC-R 13 94.4 (75–119)§ 106.7 (84–117)§ NA
Siren et al., 2007† WISC-R/WPPSI-R 10 99.5 (84.0–128.0)§ 94.0§ NS
Nolan et al., 2004† Stanford-Binet-IV/WISC-R/WISC-III 13 Normal to normative data
Lopes et al., 2013 WISC-III Performance IQ‡‡ 30 95.10 (16.34) 101.30 (15.19) NS
Masur et al., 2013 WPPSI-III 99 (≤6 years of age) 94.5 (14.1)
D’Agati et al., 2012 WISC-III 15 92.3 (9.0) 95.2 (10.4) 0.267
Caplan et al., 2008 WISC-R/WISC-III 69 101 (15.35) 108 (11.85) 0.001*
Conde-Guzon & Cancho-Candela, 2012 WISC-R 34 103.18 (14.1) 106.15 (11.99) NS
Pavone et al., 2001† WISC-R 13 88.3 (65–115)§ 101.9 (85–110)§ NA
Siren et al., 2007† WISC-R/WPPSI-R 10 96.0 (67–118)§ 96.5 (74–102)§ NS
Nolan et al., 2004† Stanford-Binet-IV/WISC-R/WISC-III 13 Normal to normative data
Lopes et al., 2013 WISC-III Verbal Comprehension Index‡‡ 30 95.93 (15.50) 104.63 (12.52) NS
Masur et al., 2013 WISC-IV 321 (≥6 years of age) 93.1 (14.4)
WPPSI-III 99 (<6 years of age) 98.1 (16.4)
Schraegle et al., 2016 WISC-IV 30 89.5 (16.7)
Lopes et al., 2013 WISC-III Processing Speed Index‡‡ 30 95.27 (17.80) 102.57 (15.88) NS
Masur et al., 2013 WISC-IV 321 (≥6 years of age) 95.1 (15.6)
WPPSI-III 99 (<6 years of age) 96.3 (17.1)
Conant et al., 2010 WISC-III 16 104.4 (16.3) 115.7 (15.3) −0.71¶
Lopes 2013 WISC-III Perceptual Organization Index‡‡ 30 95.63 (17.20) 101.20 (14.64) NS
Masur 2013 WISC-IV 321 (≥6 years of age) 97.2 (15.1)
Masur 2013 WISC-IV Working memory Index 321 (≥6 years of age) 94.8 (14.2)
Non-verbal intelligence Oostrom 2003 Coloured Progressive Matrices / Standard Progressive Matrices 10 99 (13) 101 (15) NS
Cheng 2017 Simplified Raven’s Progressive Matrices 43 13.21 (9.01) 17.69 (7.10) < 0.05*
Masur 2013 TONI-3 316 (≥6 years of age) 103.0 (14.2)
Executive function Masur 2013 WCST Perseverative responses (standard score) 254 (≥6 years of age) 95.2 (15.0)
Gencpinar 2016 WCST Perseverative responses 19 31.21 (16.59) 19.37 (9.35) 0.010*
Perseverative errors 26.95 (12.23) 17.74 (8.66) 0.011*
Nonperseverative errors 20.26 (9.99) 19.53 (9.35) 0.816
Conant 2010 WCST Perseverative errors (standard score) 16 80.1 (22.6) 98.0 (10.6) −1.00 ¶
Categories completed (standard score) 85.3 (17.3) 100.4 (14.3)B −0.95 ¶
Failure to maintain set (standard score) 106.9 (12.7) 98.1 (15.9) 0.61 ¶
Kernan 2012 WCST Total errors 31 38 (24) 30 (21) < 0.05*
Levav 2002 WCST Perseverations responses 24 21.0 (10.6) 13.0 (10.2) NA
Perseverative errors 18.9 (8.8) 11.9 (9.1) NA
Categories completed 4.8 (1.5) 5.3 (1.2) NA
Failure to maintain set 1.2 (1.1) 0.6 (0.8) NA
Cheng 2017 WCST (adapted) 43 47.74 (28.01) 69.17 (15.62) < 0.001*
Gencpinar 2016 STROOP Time 19 35.68 (12.78) 38.68 (12.92) 0.477
Error 0.68 (1.49) 0.37 (0.76) 0.806
Correction 1.42 (1.53) 1.53 (1.86) 0.879
Kernan 2012 STROOP Color Naming 31 65 (23) 53 (15) NS
Interference 50 (35) 43 (30) NS
Levav 2002 STROOP Words 24 77.4 (19.6) 100.5 (20.6) NA
Colors 53.8 (14.6) 72.7 (13.9) NA
Color-Word 28.4 (9.7) 41.9 (12.8) NA
D’Agati 2012 Tower of London Total score 15 27.6 (3.9) 29.7 (3.1) 0.160
Total time 299.4 (97.2) 177.9 (64.3) 0.001*
Conant 2010 Tower of London Standard score 16 84.1 (17.2) 94.7 (13.8) −0.68 ¶
D’Agati 2012 COWAT FAS - One min per letter- Total words 15 21.8 (4.3) 27.2 (4.1) 0.008*
Henkin 2005 COWAT FAS - Sum of all admissible words for F, A, S 12 10.2 (2.7) 12.6 (3.1) NS
Conant 2010 COWAT One min per letter (standard score) 12 94.7 (19.3) 111.2 (15.9) −0.94 ¶
D’Agati 2012 CAT Color, animals, fruits: Sum of total words 15 39.8 (8.8) 53.2 (7.7) 0.001*
Henkin 2005 CAT Animal-Food: Sum of two categories 12 16.7 (5.2) 20.6 (4.6) < 0.05*
Gencpinar 2016 CAT Animal, Color, Fruits 19 18.68 (8.1) 26.00 (11.82) .055
Conant 2010 CAT Animal: Standard score 16 98.5 (19.7) 108.3 (18.0) −0.52 ¶
Attention Masur 2013 CPT-II Confidence Index 323 57.6 (25.5)
Omission T-score

<0.60 = 65%@

≥0.60 = 11%

>70 = 24%
Commission T-score

<0.60 = 93%

≥0.60 = 7%

>70 = 0%
K-CPT Confidence Index 85 (<6 years of age) 45.9 (18.6)
Omission T-score

<0.60 = 68%

≥0.60 = 20%

>70 = 12%
Commission T-score

<0.60 = 78%

≥0.60 = 19%

>70 = 4%
Levav 2002 CPT-X (Rosvold) Correct 24 69.5 (10.0) NA NA
Incorrect 7.0 (11.5) NA NA
Reaction time 496.5 (96.9) NA NA
Variability 99.6 (23.6) NA NA
CPT-AX Correct 61.2 (18.3) 73.5 (4.8) NA
Incorrect 15.7 (22.2) 1.4 (1.8) NA
A-non-X 2.7 (4.7) 0.4 (1.0) NA
Reaction Time 428.6 (100.8) 409.0 (68.4) NA
Variability 122.8 (24.9) 91.4 (31.1) NA
CPT-Deg. X Correct 52.3 (18.5) 60.2 (11.9) NA
Incorrect 19.0 (11.9) 12.0 (14.2) NA
Reaction time 627.7 (102.1) 580.3 (69.3) NA
Variability 110.3 (23.8) 109.3 (27.3) NA
CPT-Tones Correct 61.6 (15.9) 70.2 (10.7) NA
Incorrect 10.0 (9.8) 4.1 (7.4) NA
Reaction time 513.3 (100.9) 476.3 (72.1) NA
Variability 138.7 (19.8) 119.5 (57.8) NA
CPT-O Correct 53.1 (18.1) NA NA
Incorrect 10.7 (9.0) NA NA
Reaction time 584.7 (105.1) NA NA
Variability 138.3 (12.7) NA NA
CPT-LO Correct 61.8 (15.5) 64.5 (14.6) NA
Incorrect 9.3 (7.9) 4.6 (5.1) NA
Reaction time 486.0 (107.4) 475.8 (79.5) NA
Variability 136.2 (23.1) 121.5 (34.5) NA
Mostafa 2014 TMT A (Arabic)‡‡ Sustained attention 10 77.7 (16.2) 62 (12.6) NA
TMT B (Arabic)‡‡ Divided attention 199.6 (23.5) 114.1 (21.2) NA
Gencpinar 2016 TMT (Turkish)‡‡ Sustained attention 19 60.63 (25.96) 57.53 (19.25) 0.931
D’Agati 2012 TMT A (adult)‡‡ Sustained attention 15 44.5 (13.5) 31.9 (8.7) 0.007*
TMT B (adult)‡‡ Divided attention 146.1 (50.5) 106.4 (10.3) 0.041*
Levav 2002 TMT A (age ≥ 13:adult)‡‡ Sustained attention 24 44.5 (29.5) 30.2 (11.6) NA
TMT B(age ≥ 13: adult)‡‡ Divided attention 99.5 (49.5) 72.6 (41.9) NA
Cerminara 2013 TAP, Tonic arousal Reaction time (ms) 24 335.15 (101.63) 300.77 (45.83) 0.648
Variability of reaction time (ms) 69.98 (58.93) 40.03 (17.63) 0.006*
Number of omission errors 0.13 (0.45) 0.04 (0.20) 0.317
TAP, Phasic arousal Reaction time (ms) 309.17 (68.30) 287.08 (47.89) 0.271
Variability of reaction time (ms) 90.12 (72.80) 50.23 (32.26) 0.009*
Number of omission errors 0.13 (0.34) 0.29 (0.55) 0.157
TAP, Vigilance Reaction time (ms) 23 751.98(137.44) 809.15 (149.65) 0.338
Variability of reaction time (ms) 174.64 (71.24) 178.24 (64.89) 0.951
Number of commission errors 6.87 (7.09) 4.46 (3.72) 0.051
Number of omission errors 6.13 (3.61) 5.21 (4.11) 0.603
TAP, Divided attention Reaction time (ms) 24 786.81 (113.50) 805.60 (86.73) 0.775
Variability of reaction time (ms) 321.59 (95.49) 280.00 (87.73) 0.179
Number of commission errors 4.21 (4.52) 2.50 (2.38) 0.264
Number of omission errors 7.21 (3.73) 4.04 (3.37) 0.001*
TAP, Impulsivity(Go/No-Go task) Reaction time (ms) 666.67 (110.40) 634.44 (80.63) 0.126
Variability of reaction time (ms) 132.94 (73.71) 91.45 (23.92) 0.006*
Number of commission errors 2.67 (4.05) 0.63 (1.01) 0.001*
Number of omission errors 1.00 (2.45) 0.04 (0.20) 0.028*
TAP, Focused attention Reaction time (ms) 533.56 (153.51) 556.17 (127.44) 0.290
Variability of reaction time (ms) 193.89 (146.62) 156.62 (80.71) 0.607
Number of commission errors 10.08 (9.19) 7.88 (7.17) 0.291
TAP, Selective attention Reaction time (ms) 3179.81 (1468.43) 4215.67 (1578.28) 0.004*
Variability of reaction time (ms) 1938.79 (958.09) 2317.58 (1160.52) 0.199
Number of commission errors 1.08 (2.38) 0.58 (1.10) 0.437
Number of omission errors 6.17 (4.04) 3.96 (2.16) 0.020*
Cheng 2017 Choice reaction time test Reaction time in ms 43 532.74 (149.36) 435.28 (156.04) < 0.01*
Siren 2007 FePsy Auditory reaction time Dominant hand (z-score) 6 - 1.15 (0.66) NS
Auditory reaction time Nondominant hand (z-score) - 2.35 (1.47) NS
Visual reaction time Dominant hand (z-score) - 2.19 (1.25) NS
Visual reaction time Nondominant hand (z-score) - 0.29 (0.65) NS
Mostafa 2014 PASAT 10 19.1 (2) 19.5 (1.1) NA
Expressive Attention Task Number of wrong answers 4.4 (1.8) 2.2 (1.3) NA
Receptive Attention Task (1) 31 (2.2) 31 (2.1) NA
Receptive Attention Task (2) Number of wrong answers 3.4 (2) 1.9 (0.8) NA
Siren 2007 STIM tasks Attention 8 81.5 (14.0–96.0) 80.5 (37.0–98.0) NS
Language Caplan 2008 TOAL or TOLD-2 primary/intermediate Spoken language quotiënt 69 94 (17.16) 104 (13.31) < 0.0001*
Masur 2013 PPVT-III‡‡ Receptive vocabulary 310 (≥6 years of age) 99.3 (14.4)
PPVT-III‡‡ 104 (<6 years of age) 99.5 (14.4)
Vanasse 2005 PPVT-R (French)‡‡ 10 111.8 107.7 NS
Vanasse 2005 Experimental Metaphonological awareness task (french) Non-word repetition (% of correct responses) 10 83.8 83.75 NS
Rhyme production (% of correct responses) 90.3 84.01 NS
Phonemic blending (% of correct responses) 92.9 96.57 NS
Phonemic segmentation (% of correct responses) 81.1 91.89 < 0.05*
Phonemic inversion (% of correct responses) 83.1 92.87 NS
Vanasse 2005 Denomination task (DEN 48) Expressive language skills 10 78.1% 75.9% NS
Cheng 2017 Semantic comprehension Sentence completion test 43 19.23 (11.33) 22.63 (14.62) NS
Word rhyming Phonological processing ability 26.58 (8.80) 27.78 (9.98) NS
Henkin 2003 AERP Tonal latency (N1, N2, P3) 12 ‡ ‡ NS
Tonal amplitude (N1, N2, P3) ‡ ‡ NS
Phonetic latency “easy” (N1, N2, P3) ‡ ‡ NS
Phonetic amplitude “easy” (N1, N2, P3) ‡ ‡ NS
Phonetic latency “difficult” (N1, N2, P3) ‡ ‡ NS
Phonetic amplitude “difficult” (N1, N2, P3) ‡ ‡ Only N2*
Semantic latency (N1, N2, P3) ‡ ‡ Only P3*
Semantic amplitude (N1, N2, P3) ‡ ‡ Only N2*
Conde-Guzon 2012 LURIA-DNI Phonemic hearing 34 ‡ ‡ < 0,001*
Simple comprehension ‡ ‡ NS
Grammatical comprehension ‡ ‡ NS
Articulation & repitition ‡ ‡ < 0,001*
Denomination & narration ‡ ‡ < 0,001*
Phonetic ‡ ‡ < 0,001*
Motor and
Sensory-perceptual examinations Conant 2010 Finger-tapping test Dominant hand 16 103.5 (19.2) 108.7 (16.9) −0.29 ¶
Nondominant hand 102.2 (22.9) 112.1 (17.8) −0.48 ¶
Henkin 2005 Finger-tapping test Right-hand finger tapping 12 36.2 (6.4) 42.9 (6.4) < 0.05*
Left-hand finger tapping 36.0 (6.9) 38.3 (6.4) NS
Right-left difference 0.16 (2.9) 4.6 (4.7) < 0.05*
Siren 2007 Finger-tapping test (STIM) Dominant hand 10 39.8 (13.2–46.4) 42.3 (81.0–106.0) NS
Nondominant hand 34.3 (13.2–40.4) 35.5 (23.6–49.6) NS
Dominant/nondominant hand difference 3.6 (1.2–14.4) 5.9 (0.8–11.0) NS
Conant 2010 Complex Motor timing Short interval 450 ms Variability-Syn. 13 44.1 (10.7) 41.9 (10.6) −0.24 ¶
Short interval 450 ms Variability-Con. 53.7 (16.3) 52.4 (16.2) −0.09 ¶
Long interval 750 ms Variability-Syn. 122.1 (34.3) 95.3 (32.8) −0.70 ¶
Long interval 750 ms Variability-Con. 121.0 (32.1) 88.0 (31.8) −0.98 ¶
Long interval 750 ms Mean ITI-Con. 666.1 (62.8) 719.2 (62.1) −1.22 ¶
Guerrini 2015 DGMP test Prevalence of dysgraphia 82 21% (17/82) 8% (7/89) 0.016*
Handwriting fluency test Uno Test (Writing “Uno” for 1 min)

0.79 (95% CI-1.14,-0.45)

(reduction of the z-score)

 < 0.001*
Le Test (Writing “Le” for 1 min) 1.32 (95% CI -1.72,-0.94) (reduction of the z-scores) < 0.001*
Conde-Guzon 2012 LURIA-DNI Manual 34 ‡ ‡ < 0.001*
Verbal regulation ‡ ‡ NS
Rhythm (Hearing sensory) ‡ ‡ 0,004*
Tactile (Sensory) ‡ ‡ < 0,001*
Kinesthesia & stereognosis (Sensory) ‡ ‡ NS
Visuoperceptual, visuospatial, and visuoconstructional function Masur 2013 Beery-VMI‡‡ Visuomotor-integration 106 (<6 years of age) 98.4 (16.5)
Conant 2010 Beery-VMI‡‡ 16 89.3 (6.3) 100.2 (11.3) −1.20 ¶
Conant 2010 KABC-HM Visuomotor planning/integration 16 9.1 (3.4) 11.4 (2.8) −0.74 ¶
Henkin 2005 RCFT (Loring et al. 1988) Copy 12 32.8 (3.2) 32.9 (3.8) NS
Nolan 2004 RCFT 13 Significantly worse to normative data
Pavone 2001 RCFT Fig. A and B 13 31.9 (percentile) 62 (percentile) < 0.01*
Cheng 2017 3D mental rotation test 43 14.44 (10.11) 19.39 (11.78) NS
Conde-Guzon 2012 LURIA-DNI Spatial orientation 34 ‡ ‡ < 0,001*
Visual perception ‡ ‡ NS
Levav 2002 Letter cancellation (raw test score) 24 51.6 (15.2) 70.8 (13.9) NS
Mostafa 2014 Visual search test (wrong) 10 4.3 (1) 1.9 (0.7) NA
Cheng 2017 Visual tracing (Grofman’s) (correct) 43 9.72 (6.40) 14.45 (7.19) < 0.01*
Memory & Learning D’Agati 2012 CBTT Visuospatial short-term memory 15 4.6 (0.6) 5.0 (0.8) 0.338
Lopes 2014 CBTT 30 8.97 (3.44) 9.85 (2.74) NS
Schraegle 2016 CVLT-C Attention Span: A1 30 96.08 (14.32)
Attention Span: B1 94.85 (15.53)
Learning Efficiency: A5 98.85 (17.14)
Short Delay Free Recall: SDFR 99.05 (16.88)
Long Delay Free Recall: LDFR 98.63 (16.26)
Short Delay Cued Recall: SDCR 94.07 (15.92)
Long Delay Cued Recall: LDCR 94.85 (19.01)
Delayed Recognition 99.85 (13.01)
Inaccurate Recall: Total Intrusions on the delayed recognition task 97.15 (14.52)
Inaccurate Recall: False positives on the delayed recognition task 100.20 (15.61)
Kernan 2012 CVLT Total (T-score) 31 51 (11) 56 (9) < 0.05*
Long-Delay Free (Z-score) 0.03 (1) 1 (1) NS
Discriminability (Z-score) 0.2 (1) 1 (1) NS
Henkin 2005 CVLT Trial 1 (number of retrieved words) 12 6.6 (1.2) 8.2 (1.8) < 0.05*
Trial 3 (number of retrieved words) 10.7 (2.6) 13.1 (1.8) ≤ 0.01*
Trial 5 (number of retrieved words) 12.6 (2.2) 14 (1.4) NS
Immediate recall (number of retrieved words) 10.7 (2.2) 13.1 (1.7) ≤ 0.01*
Immediate cued recall (number of retrieved words) 10.7 (2.2) 14 (1.5) ≤ 0.001*
Delayed recall (number of retrieved words) 11.2 (2.6) 13.9 (1.4) ≤ 0.01*
Delayed cued recall (number of retrieved words) 11.2 (2.0) 14.2 (1.3) ≤ 0.001*
Recognition (% correctly identified words) 96.5 (4.0) 99.1 (2.2) NS
Retrieval = subtraction of ‘delayed recall’ from ‘recognition’ 4.2 (3.0) 1.9 (1.4) < 0.05*
Retention = substraction of ‘immediate recall’ from ‘delayed recall’ 0.5 (1.9) 0.8 (1.4) NS
Gencpinar 2016 VADST – Form B Aural-Oral 19 5.15 (0.95) 5.42 (1.34) 0.649
Visual-Oral 5.21 (1.18) 5.31 (1.20) 0.880
Aural-Written 4.94 (0.91) 5.57 (1.51) 0.105
Visual-Written 5.15 (1.21) 5.42 (1.30) 0.641
Lopes 2014 RCFT Immediate recall 30 9.00 (3.27) 9.57 (2.67) NS
Delayed recall 8.63 (3.73) 9.59 (2.84) NS
Henkin 2005 RCFT (Loring et al. 1988) Immediate recall 12 21.6 (5.1) 24.5 (7) NS
Delayed recall 21.1 (7.9) 23.2 (7.7) NS
Nolan 2004 RCFT Recall 13 Significantly worse to normative data
Levav 2002 RAVLT Total Learning over 5 trials 15 53.5 (8.2) 53.7 (8.6) NA
Learning rate T5-T1 5.0 (1.6) 5.8 (2.3) NA
Delayed memory (after 20 min) 12.2 (1.8) 11.1 (2.7) NA
Trial after interference list 11.5 (2.1) 11.4 (2.4) NA
Masur 2013 WRAML-2 Verbal Memory Index 319 (≥6 years of age) 99.1 (14.0)
Visual Memory Index 90.9 (15.6)
Conant 2010 WRAML

Screening Index

(verbal + visual memory index)

 16 106.0 (15.2) 105.0 (13.3) 0.07 ¶
Picture Memory 12.1 (3.5) 9.7 (3.2) 0.71 ¶
Design Memory 9.2 (2.9) 9.3 (3.1) −0.03¶
Verbal Learning 12.1 (3.2) 12.2 (2.4) −0.04 ¶
Story Memory 10.0 (2.7) 11.5 (2.9) −0.54 ¶
Verbal learning Delayed Recall 102.3 (15.6) 105.7 (13.1) −0.24 ¶
Story memory Delayed Recall 98.3 (13.6) 104.1 (15.3) −0.40 ¶
Story memory Recognition 104.8 (14.7) 106.9 (14.9) −0.14 ¶
Nolan 2004 WRAML Verbal learning 13 Normal to normative data
Delayed verbal recall (verbal retention) Normal to normative data
Story memory immediate Normal to normative data
Delayed recall Normal to normative data
Sentence memory Normal to normative data
Visual Learning Normal to normative data
Visual Retention Normal to normative data
Picture memory Normal to normative data
Design memory Normal to normative data
Finger windows (visual memory) Significantly worse to normative data
Gencpinar 2016 SDLT 19 13.31 (6.66) 17.31 (4.97) 0.037*
Lopes 2014 LIST learning (words) Learning 30 8.13 (3.28) 9.39 (2.82) NS
Immediate recall 8.70 (3.38) 9.38 (2.20) NS
Delayed recall 8.90 (3.07) 9.39 (2.27) NS
Recognition 8.20 (3.63) 10.25 (2.72) NS
Pavone 2001 TOMAL (Italian version) Verbal Memory Index score (VMI) 13 76 80 NS
Nonverbal Memory Index score (NMI) 49.9 71 < 0.05*
Composite Memory Index (CMI) 65 69 NS
Delayed Recall Index (DRI) 23.7 65 < 0.01*
Kernan 2012 TOMAL Memory for stories (standard score) 31 10 (3) 12 (3) < 0.01*
Memory for stories Delayed 9 (3) 11 (3) < 0.01
Siren 2007 STIM tasks Visual memory 9 80.0 (46.7–94.7) 84.5 (47.4–100.0) NS
Spatial memory 10 96.7 (59.2–100.0) 93.8 (75.0–100.0) NS
Mostafa 2014 Memory tests Spatial memory 10 7.2 (2.1) 8.2 (1.7) NA
Incidental (Verbal) memory test 8.1 (0.7) 8.4 (1.1) NA
Number Recall 7.7 (1.1) 9.8 (1.7) NA
Kernan 2012 Doors & People Verbal memory Auditory Name Recall 31 20 (7) 23 (7) NS
Long-Delay Auditory Name Recall 8 (3) 9 (3) NS
Visual Name Recall 17 (5) 16 (6) NS
E–F Difference (Auditory Retention) 1 (2) 1 (2) NS
Doors & People Visual memory Door Recall 18 (3) 17 (4) NS
Shapes Recall 31 (4) 32 (5) NS
Long Delayed Shapes 11 (1) 11 (2) NS
G–H Difference (Visual Retention) 0.4 (1) 0.2 (2) NS
Masur 2013 NEPSY-II Sentence Repetition-Standard Score 104 (<6 years of age) 9.2 (3.0)
Conde-Guzon 2012 LURIA-DNI Immediate (short-term) memory 34 ‡ ‡ < 0,001*
Logical memory ‡ ‡ < 0,001*
Achievement Masur 2013 WRAT-3‡‡ Reading 318 (≥6 years of age) 101.8 (14.8)
Spelling 100.9 (14.6)
Arithmetic 96.9 (15.7)
Conant 2010 WRAT-3‡‡ Reading 16 103.5 (12.6) 107.7 (8.6) −0.39 ¶
Spelling 99.0 (13.1) 104.9 (6.1) −0.57 ¶
Arithmetic 97.1 (12.3) 102.3 (8.2) −0.49 ¶
Vanasse 2005 BELEC Regular words 10 92.50% correct 99.17% correct <0.05
Irregular words 71.67% correct 84.17% correct NS
Regular words >1 y delay in school grade levels 40% <10%
Irregular words >1 y delay in school grade levels 50% <10%
Vanasse 2005 Non-word reading task Non words 10 80.33% correct 87.75 NS
Vanasse 2005 Alouette reading test Mean reading age deficit in months 10 25.7 (14.28) –
Cheng 2017 Simple substraction test 43 34.30 (12.02) 33.47 (9.94) NS
Conde-Guzon 2012 LURIA-DNI Writing 34 ‡ ‡ 0,009*
Reading ‡ ‡ 0,001*
Numerical structure ‡ ‡ 0,002*
Arithmetic ‡ ‡ 0,029*
By proxy (parent/teacher reports) Vega 2010 BASC subscale Attention Problems (for subscores‡) 38 58.2 (12.7) 48.8 (9.3) 0.005*
Shinnar 2017 CBCL Attention 382

60.1 (9.78)

15% clinically significant>70
Caplan 2008 CBCL 69 37.5% clinically significant>60 15.50% 0.001*
Conant 2010 CBCL 16 60.3 (8.1) 52.6 (5.0) −1.14 ¶
Shinnar 2017 Prevalence ADHD 382 26%
Caplan 2008 ADHD 69 37% 8% 0.0002*
School difficulties Urena-Hornos 2004 Prevalence School problems 49 12 (24%)
Covanis 1992 Low average school performance 124 65/124 (52%)
Berg 2014 Special education services prior to diagnosis 57 13/57 (23%)
Oostrom 2003 Special educational assistence 10 7/10 (70%)
Neuropsychological or neurodevelopmental problems Berg 2011 Prevalence Ever presence of: developmental delay, learning disorder, mental retardation, autism spectrum disorder, auditory processing disorder, dyslexia 51 13/51 (25,5%)
Fastenau 2009 Neuropsychological deficit in at least one domain ‡ 38 31,6%
Sinclair 2007 Intellectual disability 119

26/119 (22%)

Typical AE 13/80 (16%)

Atypical AE 13/39 (33%)
Wirrell 1996 Cognitive difficulties at presentation (reported by parent/teacher/physician) 58 14/58 (24%)

AERP, Auditory Event-Related Potential Test; ADHD, Attention Deficiency Hyperactive Disorder; BASC, Behavior Assessment System for Children; BELEC, Belgian Reading Battery; CAT, Category Fluency Test; CBCL, Child Behavior Checklist; CBTT, Corsi Block Tapping Test; COWAT, Controlled Oral Word Association Test; CPT, Continuous Performance Test; CVLT, California Verbal Learning Test; DGMP, Graph-motor and posture disorders of handwriting test; KABC, Kaufmann Battery for Children; N, number of patients; NA, Not Available; NS, Not Significant; PASAT, Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test; PPVT, Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test; RAVLT, Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test; RCFT, Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure Test; SD, Standard Deviation; SDLT, Serial Digit Learning Test; TAP, Computerized Test Of Attentional Performance; TMT, Trail Making Test; TOAL, Test of Adolescent Language; TOMAL, Test of Memory and Learning; TOLD, Test of Language Development; TONI-3, Test of Nonverbal Intelligence-3; VADST, Visual Aural Digit Span Test; WCST, Wisconsin Card Sorting Test; WISC, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children; WRAML, Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learning; WPPSI, Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence; WRAT, Wide Range Achievement Test

* Significant, † Not included in meta-analysis, ‡ Refer to original paper, § Median, ¶ Cohen’s d, ‡‡ Meta-analysis available