Table 1.
Effects of 1,25(OH)2D on insulin and glucose metabolism (in vivo, in vitro).
| Pancreas | Production, release, and utilization of insulin in the cells ↑ |
| Insulin | Insulin sensitivity of the cells ↑, glucose tolerance ↑, insulin resistance ↓ |
| AGEs | Protein glycosylation ↓, formation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) that damage vessels and nerves ↓ |
| Blood lipids | Cholesterol and triglyceride levels ↓, low-density lipoprotein; LDL (low density lipoprotein) oxidation ↓, effectiveness of cholesterol-lowering drugs ↑ |
| Inflammation | Formation of proinflammatory substances such as TNFα ↓ |
| Immune regulation | Th17/Th1 ↓, Th2/Treg ↑ |
| Vessels and nerves | Tendency to inflammation in blood vessels ↓, lipid deposition in the vessel walls ↓, vascular protective agents (e.g., IL-10) ↑ |
| Blood pressure | Negative endocrine regulator of the RAS (rennin angiotensin system), blood pressure ↓, elasticity of the vessel walls ↑ |