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The gut–liver axis. The gut microbiota exacerbates liver diseases by: (i) the production of prostaglandins which suppress tumour immunity; (ii) the translocation of bacterial lipopolysaccharides (LPS) and other metabolites, particularly indoles, to the liver and other organs during states of high intestinal permeability; and (iii) the alterations of bile acid composition, leading to the accumulation of secondary bile acids in the liver.
