Table 3.
Main characteristics of the plant, extraction form, route, and dose administered in studies demonstrating the action of plant extracts in the bone repair process.
| Study ID | Plant | Used parts | Indication | Solvent used for extraction | Obtaining plant material | Dose | Administration | Secondary metabolites | Geographic distribution |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Selvakumar et al., 2016 [38] | Aloe vera | Leaves | Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant activity, immune modulatory, and burn wounds | Water | ? | ? | Grafts | Saponins | ? |
| Huh et al., 2009 [24] | Astragalus membranaceus | Root | Vascular diseases, breast cancer, climacteric bone diseases (reports) | Water/ethanol | Seoul, Korea | 20 μg/kg/day and 200 μg/kg/day | Orally, ad libitum | Isoflavone formononetin | ? |
| Pal et al., 2019 [50] | Cassia occidentalis | Stem and leaves | Purgative, febrifuge, diuretic, and treatment of fracture and bone diseases | Ethanol | Lucknow, India | 250 mg/kg and 100 mg/kg | Orally, ad libitum | Flavonoids | South Asia and South America |
| Neto et al., 2015 [35] | Chenopodium ambroisioides | Leaves | Contusions and fractures | Water | Brazil | 10 mL | Topical | ? | Brazil and Latin America |
| Neto et al., 2017 [46] | Chenopodium ambroisioides | Leaves | Inflammatory conditions, contusions, and fractures | Water | Brazil | 20 g | Grafts | Flavonoids, alkaloids, and saponins | Brazil and Latin America |
| Kolios et al., 2010 [27] | Cimicifuga racemosa | Rhizomes | Reduce climacteric complaints (proven) | Water/ethanol | ? | 24.9 mg/day | Orally, ad libitum | ? | ? |
| Lacerda et al., 2010 [28] | Coffee | ? | Protein expression of the vitamin D receptor, osteoblast activity, anti-inflammatory (reports) | Water | SP, Brazil | 50 mg/mL | Orally, ad libitum | Caffeine (reports) | ? |
| Sakakura et al., 2007 [22] | Comfrey (Shymphytum officinalis) | ? | Fractured bone, tendon damage, joint disease, and ulcerations in the gastrointestinal tract | Ethanol | ? | 6CH (homeopathic dose) | Grafts | ? | ? |
| Karvande et al., 2017 [44] | Dalbergia sissoo | Heartwood | Stimulation of new cell growth, tissue regeneration (reports) Fevers, anti-inflammation (traditional uses) |
Ethanol | Lucknow, India | 250, 500, and 1000 mg/kg/day | ? | Neoflavonoids (reports) | Indian subcontinent |
| Khedgikar et al., 2017 [45] | Dalbergia sissoo | Leaves | Stimulation of new bone cells, tissue regeneration, anti-inflammatory (reports) | Ethanol | Lucknow, India | 250, 500, and 1000 mg/kg/day | Orally, ad libitum | Phytoestrogens, flavonoids (reports) | Indian subcontinent |
| Chow et al., 1982 [20] | Davallina orientalis | ? | Fractures (traditional uses) | Methanol | ? | 10 mg/kg or 30 mg/kg | Intraperitoneal | ? | ? |
| Ngueguim et al., 2012 [31] | Elephantopus mollis, Spilanthes africana, Urena lobata, Momordica multiflora, Asystasia gangetica, and Brillantaisia ovariensis | Leaves, twigs, or whole plant | Bone diseases and fracture repair, anti-inflammatory (traditional uses) | Ethanol | Dschang region, Cameroon | 250, 500, and 750 mg/kg | Orally, ad libitum | ? | ? |
| Burim et al., 2016 [36] | Epimedium sagittatum | Dried leaves | Bone repair, osteoporosis, anti-inflammatory (reports) | Water/ethanol | Shaanxi, China | 0.3 mL | Gavage | Flavonoid icariin | Asian countries |
| Gurger et al., 2019 [49] | Grape seed | Seed | Vasodilator, antiallergic, immunostimulator, anti-inflammatory, cardioprotective, antiviral, antibacterial, and anticarcinogen activities | 1% carboxymethyl cellulose | United States of America | 100 mg/kg/day | Gavage | ? | ? |
| Juma Ab, 2007 [21] | Lepidium sativum | Seeds | Diuresis, bile function, cough, fracture healing, anti-inflammatory (traditional uses) | ? | Saudi Arabia | 6 g/day | Orally, ad libitum | ? | ? |
| Giaze et al., 2018 [48] | Marantodes pumilum var. alata | Leaves and roots | Reproductive health problems and postmenopausal symptoms, known to protect the bone against osteoporosis | Water | Malaysia | 20 and 100 mg/kg/day | Orally, ad libitum | Phenolic compounds | ? |
| Ezirganli et al., 2016 [37] | Nigella sativa | Seed | Analgesic, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antibacterial, antifungal, antiparasitic, antiasthmatic, antioxidant, antineoplastic | ? | ? | 10 mg/kg/day | Gavage | Proteins, alkaloids, essential oils, saponin | ? |
| Kumar et al., 2013 [32] | Ormocarpum cochinchinense | Leaves | Fractures (traditional uses) | Methanol | Kancheepuram district, Tamil Nadu, India | 100 mg/kg−1 | Topical/orally, ad libitum | ? | Jungles of the Coromandel coast and dry forest from Tamil Nadu, India |
| Ngueguim et al., 2013 [33] | Peperomia pellucida (L.) HBK | Whole plant | Fractures, abdominal pain, headache, hypertension, anti-inflammatory (traditional uses) | Ethanol | Dschang region, Cameroon | 100 and 200 mg/kg | Orally, ad libitum | ? | Damp areas from Cameroon |
| Florence et al., 2017 [43] | Peperomia pellucida (L.) HBK | Whole plant | Abdominal pain, anti-inflammatory, boils, colic, fatigue, gout, rheumatic, joint pain, fracture management (traditional uses) | Water | Limbe, Cameroon | 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg | Orally, ad libitum | Flavonoids (reports) | America, Africa, and Asia |
| Estai et al., 2011 [29] | Piper sarmentosum | Leaves | Diabetes, hypertension, and joint aches (traditional uses) | ? | ? | 125 mg/kg/day | Orally, ad libitum | Alkaloids, amides, flavonoids, lignans, phenylpropanoids (reports) | ? |
| Porwal et al., 2017 [47] | Psidium guajava | Fruits | Diabetes, obesity, osteoporosis (traditional uses) | Ethanol | Sitapur, Uttar Pradesh, India | 250 mg/kg | ? | Polyphenols, carotenoids (reports) | ? |
| Chen et al., 2017 [42] | Salvia miltiorrhiza | ? | Osteoporosis, osteogenesis, anti-inflammatory (reports) | ? | ? | 25 and 50 mg/kg | Gavage | Tanshinol | ? |
| Yang et al., 2016 [39] | Sambucus williamsii Hance (SWH) | Root bark | Fractures, anti-inflammatory, osteoporosis (traditional uses) | Ethanol | Harbin, China | 340 and 680 mg/kg | Orally, ad libitum | Lignans, iridoids | China |
| Kolios et al., 2009 [25] | Soybeans | ? | Osteoporosis (reports) | ? | ? | 1 g/kg | Orally, ad libitum | Isoflavone genistein | ? |
| Giavaresi et al., 2010 [26] | Soybean | ? | ? | Water/ethanol | ? | ? | Grafts | Isoflavones, phytoestrogens | ? |
| Adhikary et al., 2017 [41] | Spinacia oleracea | Whole plant | Increased satiety in females and lipid-lowering effects in postmenopausal women (previous reports) | Ethanol | ? | 125, 250, 500, and 750 mg/kg/day | Orally, ad libitum | Ascorbate, carotenoids, tocopherols, phenolics, flavonoids, folate | ? |
| Zhuang et al., 2016 [40] | Ulmus davidiana Planch | Stem bark | Anti-inflammation, edema, stomach cancer (traditional uses) | Ethanol | ? | 50, 100, 250, and 500 mg/kg | Gavage | Flavonoids (catechin) | Korean Peninsula |
| Sharan et al., 2011 [30] | Ulmus wallichiana | Stem bark | Fractures (traditional uses) | Ethanol | ? | 1.0 mg/kg/day and 5.0 mg/kg/day | Orally, ad libitum | Flavonoid quercetin | ? |
| Oztürk et al., 2008 [23] | Vitex agnus-castus L. | Fruits | Bone loss and resorption, heart disease (reports) | Ethanol | ? | 0.75 mg | Intramuscular | Flavonoids (reports) | Middle East and Southern Europe |
?: not related; CH: diluted 100×.