Table 2. Citation Characteristics^a.

Characteristic	Definition
Affirmative	Citing work confirms, is supported by, depends on, agrees with, or is strongly influenced by cited work
Assumptive	Citing work refers to assumed knowledge that is general or specific background or an historical account or acknowledges cited work pioneers
Conceptual	Citing work uses definitions, concepts, or theories of cited work
Contrastive	Citing work contrasts between the current work and cited work or other works with each other or is an alternative to cited work
Methodologic	Citing work uses materials, equipment, practical techniques, tools, analysis methods, procedures, or design of cited work
Negative	Citing work disputes, corrects or questions, or negatively evaluates cited work
Perfunctory	Citing work makes a perfunctory reference, is cited without additional comment, makes a redundant reference to cited work, or is not apparently strictly relevant to the author’s immediate concerns
Persuasive	Cited work is cited in a ceremonial fashion or is authored by a recognized authority in the field

^aAdapted from definitions by Bornmann and Daniel.⁵