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. 2019 Dec 3;10:2839. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.02839

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Copyright © 2019 Kempkes, Joosten, Koenen and He.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Immunosuppressive mechanisms underlying Treg-mediated immune suppression. Treg are characterized by expression of the cell surface markers CD4⁺, CD25^high and CD127^low/−, and transcription factor FOXP3. Treg modulate the immune system using their suppressive molecules PD-1, CTLA-4, CD39, and various surface receptors through inhibition of dendritic cell (DC) function and maturation, through the secretion of anti-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-10, TGF-β and IL-35, and/or through direct inhibition of Teff via induction of cytolysis using granzyme and metabolic disruption. Moreover, Treg can reduce Teff activation by limiting TCR-ligand binding.