Fig. 1.

Nef-dependent upregulation of CCL2 at 48 h requires TGFβ-1 signaling. a GFP and Nef are expressed strongly for 48 h after transfection of rat primary astrocytes in vitro regardless of treatment with SD208, n = 3. b Quantitative PCR of TGFβ-1 expression in astrocytes expressing GFP or Nef at 24 and 48 h. GFP n = 10; Nef n = 9; *p = 0.03. c Quantitative PCR of CCL2 expression in astrocytes expressing GFP or Nef with or without SD208 at 24 and 48 h: GFP (white bar) n = 10, Nef (black bar) n = 8, and Nef+ SD208 (shaded bar) n = 3; ***p < 0.001, *p = 0.03