Table 1.
Representative interventional photoacoustic imaging systems. L, lateral; A, axial.
| Reference | Light delivery probe | Laser source | Ultrasound system | Spatial Resolution (μm) | Targeted application | Validation |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Piras et al. (2013) [62] | 600-μm-diameter optical fibre in a biopsy needle | 1064 nm, 250 Hz (Diny pQ, IB laser) | 7.5 MHz, 128 elements (L10-5, Picus, Esaote Europe BV) | – | Breast biopsy guidance | Breast phantom with fish heart as inclusions |
| Kruizinga et al. (2014) [81] | 400-μm-core-diameter, side-firing fibre in a 1.25 mm rigid steel tube | 1130 - 1250 nm (OPOTEK Vibrant B/355-II) | 8 MHz, 256 elements (ATL 12L5 + Verasonics V1) | – | Carotid artery atherosclerosis | Human carotid artery ex vivo |
| Xia et al. (2015) [63] | 910-μm-cores-diameter optical fibre in a needle | 750 - 900 nm, 1150 - 1300 nm, 10 Hz (VersaScan L-532, GWU-Lasertechnik) | 5 - 14 MHz, 128 elements (L14-5/38, SonixMDP, Analogic Ultrasound) | L: 600 - 1000 A: ∼100 |
Fetal surgery and nerve blocks guidance | Human placenta ex vivo + nerve and vessel phantom (porcine fat and human blood in tubes) |
| Bell et al. (2015) [80] | 1-mm-core diameter optical fibre attached to a surgical tool | 1064 nm | 5-14 MHz (L14-5W/60, Ultrasonix) | – | Endonasal Surgeries | Bone and blood vessel phantom |
| Bell et al. (2015) [82] | 1-mm-core diameter, side-firing optical fibre in a 2 mm quartz tube | 1064 nm, 10 Hz (Phocus InLine, Opotek) | 4 - 8 MHz linear array + 5 - 9 MHz curvilinear array (BPL9-5 + BPC8-4, Ultrasonix + SonixTouch, Ultrasonix) | – | Prostate cancer detection and treatment | Brachytherapy seeds |
| Singh et al. (2016) [85] | 600-μm-diameter, side-firing optical fibre in a biopsy needle | 720 - 860 nm, 10 Hz (Quanta-Ray Pro 250, Spectra Physics, VersaScan-L532, GWU) | 7.5 MHz, 128 elements (SL3323, MyLab_One, Esaote Europe BV) | – | Prostate cancer detection and treatment | Brachytherapy seeds |
| Allard et al. (2018) [84] | Fibres attached to a da Vinci® scissor tool | 1064 nm | Alpinion L3-8, Alpinion ECUBE 12R | – | Teleoperated hysterectomies | Blood vessel phantom |
| Li et al. (2018) [86] | 1.5-mm-core-diameter optical fibre fused with a 3-cm-long active diffuser made of silica | 1064 nm (Q-smart 850, Quantel Laser) | 5 MHz, 128 elements (L7-4, Vantage 128, Verasonics) | L: 931 A: 419 |
Cancer screening and intraoperative guidance | Mouse in vivo |