Ages 6–11 years
	Broad Reading		Applied Problems		Externalizing Behavior		Internalizing Behavior
	B	SE	B	SE	B	SE	B	SE
Mother-child total time (weekly hours)	0.055	0.027*	0.001	0.029	−0.006	0.007	−0.006	0.005
Child time in educational or structured activities (weekly hours)	0.418	0.122**	0.305	0.120*	−0.004	0.029	−0.028	0.021
Punitive parenting (standardized)	1.177	0.429**	0.289	0.451	0.384	0.107***	0.029	0.077
Parental school involvement (standardized)	1.268	0.565*	1.560	0.616*	−0.258	0.135	−0.137	0.103
Parent-child discussions (standardized)	−0.170	0.510	0.286	0.558	−0.065	0.131	−0.015	0.096
Emotional support (standardized)	−2.032	1.284	0.249	1.370	−0.355	0.309	−0.797	0.220***
Cognitive stimulation (standardized)	1.936	0.927*	0.849	0.974	0.015	0.220	0.326	0.155*
Child age in years	−0.413	0.336	0.373	0.348	−0.037	0.078	0.300	0.054***
Child is male	−2.167	0.827**	2.610	0.856**	1.047	0.199***	0.387	0.150*
Primary caregiver age	0.245	0.083**	0.356	0.086***	−0.049	0.020*	−0.029	0.015
Child race/ethnicity (vs. non-Hispanic white)
African-American	−6.467	1.449***	−8.386	1.372***	−0.563	0.327	−0.449	0.238
Latino	−2.287	1.456	−3.234	1.418*	−0.785	0.370*	0.349	0.306
Other race	−1.241	1.733	−2.070	2.530	−0.267	0.460	−0.806	0.306**
Primary caregiver’s education (vs. high school)
Less than high school	−4.840	1.524*	−5.951	1.713**	−0.164	0.375	0.149	0.312
Some college	3.825	1.071***	3.289	1.075**	−0.259	0.256	0.024	0.191
College or more	5.392	1.143***	7.066	1.230***	−0.631	0.284*	−0.252	0.214
Primary caregiver’s employment status (vs. working)
Unemployed	0.757	1.768	1.730	1.867	−0.382	0.453	−0.267	0.343
Out of labor force	1.348	0.880	1.625	0.951	−0.038	0.235	−0.080	0.175
Primary caregiver’s union status (vs. married to other biological/adoptive parent)
Married to child’s steparent	−1.435	1.809	−2.459	1.832	0.634	0.455	0.095	0.300
Cohabiting with other parent	1.011	2.533	3.361	2.704	1.169	0.723	0.260	0.523
Cohabiting with stepparent	−1.447	3.957	2.582	3.635	1.916	0.790*	1.632	0.620**
Unpartnered	−3.643	1.275**	−0.878	1.244	1.096	0.287***	0.511	0.231*
Number of siblings	−1.800	0.425***	−1.121	0.407**	0.053	0.100	−0.081	0.067
Child was low birthweight	−1.583	1.568	−4.645	1.929*	−0.051	0.417	0.669	0.275*
Diary characteristics
Caregiver wrote/helped with weekday diary	−1.558	1.645	2.750	1.598	−0.037	0.454	0.034	0.306
Caregiver wrote/helped with weekend diary	2.409	1.709	−2.523	1.543	0.413	0.452	0.558	0.314
Report on weekday diary completion missing	−3.172	3.610	−2.883	2.626	0.739	0.914	0.200	0.596
Report on weekend diary completion missing	4.558	3.033	0.863	2.573	−0.630	0.730	−0.006	0.520
Weekday diary day is typical/very typical	−0.347	0.890	0.410	0.942	0.102	0.229	0.068	0.176
Weekend diary day is typical/very typical	−1.242	0.817	−1.303	0.891	−0.574	0.212**	−0.393	0.164*
Weekday diary day typicality is missing	−4.193	3.586	1.305	3.113	0.677	0.681	1.346	0.549*
Weekend diary day typicality is missing	−2.992	2.956	1.172	2.500	−0.607	0.553	−0.234	0.428
Wave (vs. wave 1, 1997)
Wave 2, 2002	2.522	2.548	1.323	2.487	−1.089	0.626	−1.096	0.465*
Wave 3, 2007	−2.684	2.521	1.604	2.567	−0.596	0.624	−1.113	0.494*
Intercept	103.189	4.095***	91.548	4.527***	8.024	0.924***	1.931	0.716**
N (person-wave records)	2143		2180		2300		2302
	Ages 12–17 years
	Broad Reading		Applied Problems		Externalizing Behavior		Internalizing Behavior
	B	SE	B	SE	B	SE	B	SE
Mother-child total time (weekly hours)	0.070	0.028*	0.029	0.022	−0.024	0.007***	−0.009	0.005
Child time in educational or structured activities (weekly hours)	0.173	0.071*	0.146	0.064*	−0.056	0.016***	−0.035	0.014*
Punitive parenting (standardized)	−0.027	0.472	−0.303	0.449	0.646	0.119***	0.206	0.092*
Parental school involvement (standardized)	−2.051	0.645**	−1.817	0.668**	0.301	0.173	0.220	0.152
Parent-child discussions (standardized)	0.966	0.378*	0.539	0.397	0.075	0.118	−0.139	0.105
Emotional support (standardized)	0.670	1.848	1.140	1.580	−1.849	0.505***	−0.737	0.400
Cognitive stimulation (standardized)	6.431	1.175***	5.134	1.021***	−1.033	0.283***	−0.090	0.224
Child age in years	−0.240	0.260	−0.705	0.258**	−0.212	0.070	−0.049	0.058
Child is male	−1.327	0.907	4.144	0.826***	0.249	0.226	−0.364	0.179*
Primary caregiver age	0.158	0.092	0.143	0.081	−0.075	0.024**	−0.046	0.019*
Child race/ethnicity (vs. non-Hispanic white)
African-American	−10.338	1.508***	−10.517	1.141***	−0.043	0.387	−0.741	0.284**
Latino	−3.813	1.598*	−6.296	1.589***	−0.284	0.438	0.364	0.340
Other race	−1.553	1.750	0.696	2.314	0.278	0.548	0.142	0.362
Primary caregiver’s education (vs. high school)
Less than high school	−5.107	1.598**	−3.912	1.649*	−0.183	0.452	0.258	0.358
Some college	2.627	1.190*	2.086	1.068	0.060	0.300	0.125	0.236
College or more	7.534	1.321***	7.167	1.223***	0.016	0.312	−0.074	0.240
Primary caregiver’s employment status (vs. working)
Unemployed	3.482	1.563*	3.329	1.850	−0.475	0.555	−0.410	0.465
Out of labor force	0.194	1.016	1.286	0.945	0.227	0.261	0.455	0.207*
Primary caregiver’s union status (vs. married to other biological/adoptive parent)
Married to child’s steparent	−0.460	2.241	−1.354	1.792	1.269	0.482**	0.626	0.392
Cohabiting with other parent	−1.454	2.047	5.235	2.542*	−1.907	0.901*	−0.382	0.934
Cohabiting with stepparent	−0.021	3.286	0.221	3.012	−0.576	0.815	−1.049	0.507*
Unpartnered	−0.551	1.378	−0.707	1.069	0.471	0.332	0.764	0.254**
Number of siblings	−0.392	0.249	0.100	0.222	0.049	0.070	0.042	0.056
Child was low birthweight	−3.037	1.620	−4.087	1.748*	−0.352	0.463	0.171	0.323
Diary characteristics
Caregiver wrote/helped with weekday diary	−0.104	1.554	−0.168	1.429	0.069	0.387	−0.324	0.339
Caregiver wrote/helped with weekend diary	−1.494	1.520	−0.146	1.447	−0.279	0.396	0.322	0.344
Report on weekday diary completion missing	−0.195	1.978	−2.200	2.185	0.588	0.586	−0.302	0.441
Report on weekend diary completion missing	−1.660	1.761	0.127	2.058	−0.609	0.523	−0.166	0.403
Weekday diary day is typical/very typical	−0.944	0.968	0.393	0.902	−0.250	0.247	0.137	0.199
Weekend diary day is typical/very typical	0.552	0.909	1.585	0.814	−0.301	0.240	−0.679	0.186***
Weekday diary day typicality is missing	0.362	2.248	−0.100	2.523	−1.186	0.680	−0.856	0.520
Weekend diary day typicality is missing	−0.147	1.916	−2.196	2.518	1.179	0.723	0.756	0.527
Wave (vs. wave 1, 1997)
Wave 2, 2002	0.277	3.303	2.894	2.902	−3.569	0.927***	−0.517	0.759
Wave 3, 2007	−0.915	3.329	5.281	3.059	−4.499	0.985***	−1.171	0.806
Intercept	100.853	5.874***	101.994	4.856***	15.977	1.494***	6.895	1.222***
N (person-wave records)	1977		1978		2023		2019

Notes: Models are weighted. All models include controls for sociodemographic characteristics and are clustered on the child.