Table 1.
Demographic Information
| Demographics | Participants (n=20) |
|---|---|
| Age | 43.00 (13.37) |
| Sex, N (%) | |
| Male | 8 (40%) |
| Female | 12 (60%) |
| Race, N(%) | |
| Caucasian | 18 (90%) |
| African American | 2 (10%) |
| Ethnicity, N(%) | |
| Hispanic/Latino | 1 (5%) |
| Non-Hispanic/Latino | 19 (95%) |
| BMI | 25.94 (4.46) |
| Handedness | |
| Right | 18 (90%) |
| Left | 2 (10%) |
| Time in Pain (years) | 7.1 (6.0) |
| 0–2 yrs, N(%) | 4 (20%) |
| 2–5 yrs, N(%) | 8 (40%) |
| 5+ yrs, N(%) | 8 (40%) |
| Previous Treatment, N (%) | |
| Physical or Aquatic therapy | 13 (65%) |
| Opioids | 4 (20%) |
| Over the counter medications (e.g., NSAID) | 18 (90%) |
| Alternative Treatments (e.g., chiropractor, acupuncture) | 13 (65%) |
| Surgery | 3 (15%) |
| Counseling, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy | 1 (5%) |
| Social support (e.g., chronic pain social group) | 1 (5%) |
| Low-impact exercise (e.g., yoga, pilates) | 13 (65%) |
| Mindfulness Intervention | 3 (15%) |
| Other | 5 (25%) |
| Self-Report Assessments (Baseline) | |
| Pre-treatment Opinion on likelihood of pain improvement (0–10 NRS, not likely at all to very likely) | 3.75 (1.62) |
| Defense and Veterans Pain Rating Scale | 4.4 (1.05) |
| Pain Interference with: | |
| Activity | 4.8 (1.67) |
| Sleep | 5.00 (2.62) |
| Mood | 4.10 (1.68) |
| Stress | 4.35 (2.23) |
| Oswestry Disability Index | 28.52 (11.51) |
| UCLA Activity score | 5.9 (2.29) |
| Low, N (%) | 4 (20%) |
| Medium, N (%) | 10 (50%) |
| High, N (%) | 6 (39%) |
| Pain Catastrophizing Scale (PCS) Total | 15.05 (9.78) |
| Rumination | 5.8 (4.76) |
| Magnification | 3.2 (2.38) |
| Helplessness | 6.05 (3.65) |
| Pain Self Efficacy Questionnaire (PSEQ) Total | 37.6 (12.14) |
| BIS/BAS Scale | |
| BAS Drive | 10.3 (2.36) |
| BAS Fun Seeking | 11.9 (1.97) |
| BAS Reward Responsiveness | 17.3 (1.95) |
| BIS | 20.3 (4.12) |
| State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI-Trait) | 43.25 (10.36) |
| Depression and Anxiety Subscale (DASS-21) | 15.55 (13.34) |
| Clinical Assessments (Baseline) | |
| HAMD-17 | 8.9 (3.46) |
| Pressure Pain Threshold (PPT) | |
| Brachioradialis (lb) | 4.8 (2.37) |
| Sacroiliac Joint (lb) | 8.99 (3.95) |
| HRV Components (Baseline) | |
| Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia (RSA) or High Frequency (HF) | 5.45 (1.41) |
| Low Frequency (LF) | 4.84 (1.37) |
| LF/HF | 0.89 (0.21) |
| Mean RR | 899.99 (149.04) |
| Standard Deviation of RR Intervals (SDNN) | 46.56 (27.63) |
| Root Mean Square of Successive Differences (RMSSD) | 41.02 (36.58) |
Note: Baseline refers to the pre-stimulation measures of session 1.
Abbreviations: BMI, Body Mass Index; BIS/BAS, Behavioral Inhibition System/Behavioral Activation System Scale; HamD-17, Hamilton Depression Rating Scale; HRV, Heart Rate Variability; LF/HF, ration of Low Frequency to high frequency; Mean RR, Mean time between RR (all R peaks) intervals.