Table 1.

Main characteristics of studies examined the association between breakfast skipping and overweight/obesity in children and adolescents

First Author (Year)	Study design	Location	Sample size	Characteristics of participants	Age range (years)	Anthropometric assessment	Comparison groups	Adjustment	Quality score
Anderson et al., 2005 [16]	Cross-section	Norway	1432	Both genders/ fourth & eighth graders	11	Self-reported	≤ 2 vs. 6-7 times/weak eating breakfast	Age, gender, social class, watching TV, Energy	7
Harding et al., 2008 [13]	Cross-section	London	6599	Both sexes	11-13	Standard measurement	Skippers vs. eaters	Gender	5
Dialectakou et al., 2008 [11]	Cross-section	Piraeus	811	High school students	16	Standard measurement	Skipper s vs. regular eaters	sex, age, ethnicity, smoking, dieting, physical activity, and parental education	5
Dubios et al., 2008 [12]	Cross-section	Canada	1549	Both sexes, Healthy children	4	Standard measurement	Skippers (fewer than 7 days) vs. eaters	Gender, mother’s education	5
Crozen et al., 2009 [10]	Cross-section	Netherland	25,176	Both sexes Adolescents in grade 2 & 4	13-16	Self-reported	Skipping >2 days vs. 0 days	Gender, family situation, ethnic background, education, smoking	6
Maddah et al., 2009 [14]	Cross-section	Iran	6635	Both genders at elementary schools	6-11	Standard measured	Skipping vs. non-skipping (no clear definition)	age, sex, maternal educational level, television viewing, birth rank, mother’s employment, parental overweight/obesity, walking, birth weight	6
Thompson et al., 2010 [15]	Cross-section	Fiji	523	Adolescent girls	16.6	Self-reported	Skippers vs. regular eaters	Not clear	6
Dupuy et al., 2011 [22]	Cross-section	France	7154	Both genders, WHO-collaborative Health behavior in schoo-aged children study (HBSC) study,	11-15	Self-reported	Not daily eating vs. daily eating	Age, sex, marital status, educational level, monthly income, cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, betel quid chewing and exercise habit	6
Duncan et al., 2011 [21]	Cross-section	Brazil	3397	Children & adolescents, both genders	7-18	Standard measured	5 days a week vs. never	Sex, age, father education, mother education	7
Kim et al., 2012 [17]	Cohort	Korea	20,962	Adolescents, both genders	15	Self-reported	1-2 times/wks vs.6-7 times/wks	Age, frequency of smoking, frequency of drinking, the parents’ education level, economic status, frequency of vigorous physical activity (PA), frequency of moderate PA, frequency of muscular strength exercises, mental stress, and sleep duration	6
Shafiee et al., 2013 [24]	Cross-section	Iran	5625	Both genders, children and adolescents	10-18	Standard measurements	0-2 days/wks vs. 6-7 days/wks	Age, sex, family history of chronic disease, educations of parents, physical activity, socioeconomic status	6
Bjonara et al., 2013 [26]	Cross-section	8 European countries	6512	Both genders, students at final year of primary school	10-12	Self-reported	7 days a weak vs. 0-6 days a weak	Sex, ethnicity, education level	6
Kuper et al., 2014 [18]	Cohort	Netherland	1366	Both genders, children	5	Standard measurement	Skippers (fewer than 7 days) vs. eaters	Age, gender, birth weight, maternal BMI, parental BMI, single parenting, maternal educational level	5
Ahadi et al., 2015 [20]	Cross-section	Iran	13,486	Children and adolescents, both genders	6-18	Standard measurement	0-2 days/wks vs. 5-7 days/wks	Age, sex, family history of chronic diseases, screen time, physical activity, socio-economic status	8
Nilsen et al., 2017 [23]	Cross-section	Sweden	2620	Children	7-9	Standard measurement	Skipper vs. eaters		5
Tee et al., 2018 [25]	Cross-section	Malaysia	5332	Children and adolescents	6-17	Standard measurement	Skippers vs. regular eaters	Age, sex, ethnicity, fathers education, income, physical activity	6