Table 2.

Type of functioning that characterizes the individual.

Reference Articles	Definition Proposed	Citation Source
Barber [25]	Resilience, by definition, is a unique, nonnormative type of functioning that can be exhibited only in the face of adversity. Because severe adversity is presumed to disable most people, resilient functioning in such contexts is viewed as extraordinary. As the argument goes, this would be the case especially in severely adverse contexts such as war and other forms of violent political conflict wherein simply escaping psychopathology would qualify as resilience.	Barber [25]
Barber [25]	Related is the debate about whether resilience should be considered as resistance or recovery. For some, rather than revealing competent adjustment, the construct describes a distinctive response in the face of challenge or risk that is variously characterized as resisting, escaping, being less vulnerable, not struggling as much as others, or having a heightened ability to handle stress.	Hoge [48]; Westpahl [49]; Wexler [50]
Çuhadar [51]	Psychological resilience is defined as the ability of an individual to successfully overcome negative conditions and adapt to them even when faced with difficult conditions such as serious health problems, and is a personal property as a source of resistance when faced with stressful life events.	Luthar [15]; Reis [52]; Terzi [53]; Öz [54]; Basim [55]; Wright [56]; Schumacher [57]
McAllister [58]	Resilience refers to one’s ability to deal with stress and adversity and is influenced by genetic, epigenetic, developmental, neurochemical, and psychosocial factors.	Connor [13]; Evers [59]; Karoly [60]; Wu [61]
Patel [18]	Resilience as an ability of adults to “maintain relatively stable, healthy levels of psychological and physical functioning”.	Bonanno [62]
Johnston et al. [40]	Resilience is the ability to maintain healthy levels of function over time despite adversity or to return to normal function after adversity.	Bonanno [63]; Bonanno [64]; Costanzo [65]; Bonanno [33]; Scali [66]; Lam [67]; Taylor [68]
Sharpley [69]	Psychological resilience is an intervention or buffer variable between stress and depression, possibly working by an active physiological process that reduces autonomic responses to stressors.	Luthar Cicchetti [4]; Charney [70]
Sudom [71]	Resilience can be viewed as a personal characteristic or set of characteristics that protects individuals from the adverse effects of stress on well-being.	Connor [13]; Luthar, [15]
Garcia-Dia [72]	Defined resilience as the ability of adults in otherwise normal circumstances, who were exposed to an isolated and potentially highly disruptive event, to maintain relatively stable and healthy levels of psychological and physical functioning and the capacity for generative experiences and positive emotions.	Bonanno [62]
Ungar [73]	Resilience is ‘‘an interactive concept that is concerned with the combination of serious risk experiences and a relatively positive psychological outcome despite those experiences’’.	Rutter [74]
De Terte [31]	The ability of an individual to remain psychologically healthy or stable despite the fact that they have been exposed to an adverse event.	Bonanno [62]
Earvolino-Ramirez [75]	The literature on ego-resiliency refers to personal characteristics of the individual as encompassing a set of traits reflecting general resourcefulness and sturdiness of character.	Block Block [76]
Patel [18]	Resilience “as an attribute (e.g., ability, capacity), a process, and/or an outcome associated with successful adaption to and recovery from adversity” and that it “differs depending on context and purpose”.	Pfefferbaum [77]
Davydov [19]	Resilience (or ‘resiliency’) as an individual trait, or an epiphenomenon of adaptive temperament.	Ong [78]; Wachs [79]
Harvey [80]	Resilience was largely determined by innate factors, and was therefore relatively unaffected by development or by interaction with the environment.	Rutter [81]
Stephens [23]	We describe a resilient individual as someone who has not only survived adversity but has also learned from the experience with resulting personal growth.	McAllister [82]
Barber [25]	Resilience refers explicitly and exclusively to functioning in contexts of substantial risk or adversity.	Rutter [36]
Barber [25]	Resilience is a unique form of competent functioning that can only be apparent in the face of considerable adversity.	Rutter [83]
De Terte, [31]	Resilience is the ability to maintain psychological and physical health despite exposure to a traumatic event.	Bonanno [62]
Brodsky [84]	Resilience consists of internal, local level goals that are aimed at intrapersonal actions and outcomes—adapting, withstanding, or resisting the situation as it is. Empowerment is enacted socially—aimed at external change to relationships, situations, power dynamics, or contexts—and involves a change in power, along with an internal psychological shift.	Cattaneo [85]
Kim-Cohen [86]	Resilience is theorized to result from a dynamic interplay among multiple factors that threaten adaptive functioning, as well as multilevel factors that protect against adversity and promote positive adjustment.	Cicchetti [87]; Luthar [88]; Masten [89]; Rutter [74]
Cuhadar [51]	Psychological resilience depends on various factors involving cognitive flexibility, positive affect and optimism, humor, acceptance, active coping and religion/ spirituality, altruism, social support, role models, exercise, capacity to recover from negative events, and stress inoculation.	Southwick [90]
Hilliard [91]	Resilience is the demonstration of emotional, behavioral, or health outcomes that match or surpass normative developmental milestones, behavioral functioning, or emotional well-being, despite exposure to the substantial challenges of living with and managing a medical or developmental condition. These resilient outcomes should first focus on explicitly positive experiences or the maintenance of a typical trajectory, but could also include the absence of negative experiences, such as low levels of distress or dysfunction.	Hilliard [92]
Graber [93]	Resilience is associated with lowered psychological distress and health-promoting lifestyles.	Black [93]; Campbell-Sills [94]
Tan [95]	Resilience can potentially refer to pre-existing personality traits, the dynamic process of adaptation, a psychosocial outcome, or a mixture of all three.	Luthar [15]; Bonanno [96]; Southwick [97]
Tan [95]	Specific qualities comprising resilience have been identified including optimism, active coping skills and maintaining a social network.	Iacoviell [98]
Eshel [99]	Resilience has thus been defined as a stable trajectory of healthy functioning after a highly adverse event.	Southwick [97]
Eshel [99]	Resilience has thus been defined as the balance of individual strength (protective factors) and vulnerability (risk factors) following an adversity or a traumatic event.	Eshel [100]; Eshel [101]
Eshel [99]	Resilience represents an integration of strength and vulnerability, and that understanding adaptation to adversities requires a concurrent examination of protective processes and risk factors.	Masten [102]
Stainton [37]	Healthy, adaptive, or integrated positive functioning over the passage of time in the aftermath of adversity.	Southwick [97]
Stainton [37]	In the context of exposure to significant adversity, resilience is both the capacity of individuals to navigate their way to the psychological, social, cultural, and physical resources that sustain their wellbeing, and their capacity individually and collectively to negotiate for these resources to be provided and experienced in culturally meaningful ways.	Ungar [103]
Stainton [37]	Resilience is a dynamic capability which can allow people to thrive on challenges given appropriate social and personal contexts.	Howe [104]
Dulin [46]	Resilience as a mechanism for the protective effects of conscientiousness on health outcomes.	O’Cleirigh [105]
Dulin [46]	Defined resilience as “a combination of personality characteristics and successful coping that allows an individual to function adaptively in the face of or following adversity.”	Dale [106]
Casale [107]	Resilience is broadly defined as a protective factor that makes people less vulnerable to future adverse life events.	Ayed [108]
Li [109]	Resilient people have the ability to adjust and cope successfully in the face of adversity, exhibiting a stable trajectory of healthy functioning across time and the capacity for positive emotions after having experienced stressful life events.	Bonanno [110]
Sharpley [69]	Psychological resilience defined as a set of specific behavioral or attitudinal skills which help an individual cope effectively with stress and avoid becoming depressed.	Von Ammon [111]; Bitsika [112]; Sharpley [113]
De Terte, [114]	Psychological resilience is as a combination of cognitions, behaviors, and environmental factors. These factors are optimism, adaptive coping, adaptive health practices, and social support from colleagues.	De Terte, [31]