Figure 2.

The spectrum of effects when caffeine is consumed prenatally, postnatally, and during adolescence. Caffeine consumed during pregnancy and adolescence may have adverse effects. However, in premature infants, caffeine is remarkably safe and has substantial benefits on the lungs and the brain. Caffeine reduces bronchopulmonary dysplasia, improves survival and neurodevelopmental outcomes at 18 months in premature infants ≤1250 g at birth. Infants should be monitored for cardio-metabolic, neurobehavioral, and other adult-oriented disorders as the long-term effects of caffeine are not known. Caffeine consumption offers substantial benefits in adults [108,109,110].