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. 2019 Nov 13;9(11):735. doi: 10.3390/biom9110735

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© 2019 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Reactive oxygen species and metastasis. High levels of reactive oxygen species leads to metastasis through the stimulation of phosphoinositide-3-kinase regulatory subunit/AKT serine/threonine kinases/mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase (PI3K/Akt/mTOR), and MAPK (Mitogen-activated protein kinases) signaling pathways which activates downstream SNAIL, MMP2 (metalloproteinase 2), and MMP9 (metalloproteinase 9) enzymes initiating epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) leading to metastasis.