Table 3.
Techniques for analyzing the physicochemical properties of ZnO NPs.
| Physicochemical Characteristics | Analysis Techniques |
|---|---|
| Agglomeration/aggregation | SEM (++), TEM (++), SPM (++), MALS (+), SAXS (+/−), SMPS (++) |
| Composition | Neutron/electron scattering (+), XRD (+), ICP-MS/OES (++), SP ICP-MS (++), EDS (+), NMR (++), XRF (++), SIMS (+), EELS (+), TOF-MS/ATOF-MS (++), FTIR/RS (++), UV–Vis (+), AES (+/−) |
| Crystalline phase | SEM (+), TEM (+), Neutron/electron scattering (++), XRD (++), FTIR/RS (+; RS), TGA/DSC (+) |
| Dustiness | SD/VS (+) |
| Solubility | DLS/PCS/QELS (++), MALS (++) |
| Dispersibility | DLS/PCS/QELS (++), MALS (++) |
| Stability | DLS/PCS/QELS (++), MALS (++), ELS (++), TGA/DSC (++) |
| Particle size/size distribution | SEM (++), TEM (++), SPM (++), DLS/PCS/QELS (++), MALS (++), SAXS (+), XRD (+; volume weighted primary crystals), SP ICP-MS (++), TOF-MS/ATOF-MS (+; coupled with FFF), FTIR/RS (+; RS), UV–Vis (+; for plasmonic materials), CHDF (++), FFF/A4F/FlFFF (++), BET (+/−), CLS (++), SMPS (++) |
| Shape | SEM (++), TEM (++), SPM (++) |
| Specific surface area | TEM (+; electron tomography), SAXS (+/−), BET (++) |
| Surface chemistry | ICP-MS/OES (+/−), EDS (+), NMR (+), XPS (++), SIMS (++), EELS (++), TOF-MS/ATOF-MS (++), FTIR/RS (+), AES (++), TGA/DSC (++) |
| Surface charge/zeta potential | SPM (+/−), DLS/PCS/QELS (+), ELS (++) |
| Porosity | BET (++), Mercury intrusion (++) |
Abbreviations: SEM: scanning electron microscopy, TEM: transmission electron microscopy, SPM: scanning probe microscopy, MALS: multiangle light scattering, SAXS: small-angle X-ray scattering, SMPS: scanning mobility particle sizer, XRD: X-ray diffraction, ICP-MS: inductively coupled plasma-mass spectroscopy, OES: optical emission spectrometer, SP ICP-MS: single particle ICP-MS, EDS: energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, NMR: nuclear magnetic resonance, XRF: X-ray fluorescence spectrometer, SIMS: secondary ion mass spectrometry, EELS: electron energy loss spectroscopy, TOF-MS: time-of-flight mass spectrometry, ATOF-MS: aerosol TOF-MS, FTIR: Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, RS: Raman spectroscopy, UV–Vis: ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy, AES: Auger electron spectroscopy, TGA: thermogravimetric analysis, DSC: differential scanning calorimetry, SD: small drum rotator, VS: vortex shaker, DLS: dynamic light scattering, PCS: photon correlation spectroscopy, QELS: quasi-elastic light scattering, ELS: electrophoretic light scattering, CHDF: capillary hydrodynamic flow fractionation, FFF: field flow fractionation, A4F: asymmetrical flow field-flow fractionation, FlFFF: flow field-flow fractionation, BET: Brunauer–Emmett-Teller analysis, CLS: centrifugal liquid sedimentation.