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. 2019 Dec 20;9:19503. doi: 10.1038/s41598-019-55847-8

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© The Author(s) 2019

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Estimation of UHI during (a) daytime and (b) nighttime from biophysical drivers of surface albedo change (E1), convection reduction (E2), evaporation reduction (E3), heat storage change (E4), and anthropogenic release (E5); total biophysical drivers (ΔT_BI) from E1 to E5, and the CLM (ΔT_CLM) under El Niño (EN), La Niña (LN), and Normal (NM) conditions at the Tokyo, Phoenix, Bandung, and Quito sites.