Table 4.

Antimicrobial agents used to develop antibiotic-free antibacterial PMMA-based bone cement and in vitro, in vivo, and clinical tests.

Antibacterial Agent	In Vitro Test	In Vivo Test	Clinical Test	Refs.
Ag nanoparticles (5–50 nm)	Staphylococcus aureus (Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus MRSA) S. epidermidis (Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus epidermidis MRSE) S. epidermidis			[21]
Oleic acid-capped Ag nanoparticles (about 5 nm)	Staphylococcus aureus Staphylococcus aureus Staphylococcus epidermidis Acinetobacter baumannii			[22]
Ag–tiopronin nanoparticles (5–11 nm)	Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)			[23]
Ag nanoparticles functionalized with polyvinylpyrrolidone (30–50 nm)	Staphylococcus aureus Staphylococcus epidermidis			[24]
Ag nanoparticles (50 nm)	Staphylococcus aureus Staphylococcus epidermidis Enterococcus faecalis Enterobacter cloacae Pseudomonas aeruginosa			[25]
Ag nanoparticles (5–50 nm)		rabbit model		[26]
Ag nanoparticles (5–50 nm)			12 patients	[27]
Gold nanoparticles (10–20 nm)	Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Pseudomonas aeruginosa			[28]
Copper nanoparticles	Staphylococcus aureus Staphylococcus epidermidis Enterococcus faecalis Enterobactera cloacae Pseudomonas aeruginosa			[25]
CuO nanoparticles (20–50 nm), (CTAB)-capped CuO (10–30 nm)	Staphylococcus aureus Escherichia coli			[29]
ZnO nanoparticles (20–120 nm)	Staphylococcus aureus Escherichia coli			[29]
Graphene oxide nanosheets (400 nm)	Escherichia coli			[30]
Magnesium particles (100–150 nm)	Staphylococcus aureus Escherichia coli			[31]
Paraben nanoparticles	Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Staphylococcus epidermidis Acinetobacter baumannii			[32]
Antibacterial quaternary amine monomer (QAMA)	Escherichia coli			[33]
Chitosan nanoparticles Quaternized chitosan (220–284 nm)	Escherichia coli Staphylococcus aureus Staphylococcus epidermidis	Rabbit model		[34,35,36]
Bioactive glasses (<20 μm) doped with Ag + or Cu2 + )	Staphylococcus aureus Escherichia coli Bacillus Candida albicans			[37,38,39,40]