TABLE 1.
Overview of the neuronal changes due to exposure to principles of neurorehabilitation included in this manuscript.
| Experience-dependent changes | Principles | Brain areas | References |
| Cellular/neuronal level | |||
| Increased neuronal activity | Spaced practice | Task/stimulus-dependent | Gerbier and Toppino, 2015 |
| Increased cell survival and improved LTP | Spaced practice | Hippocampus | Scharf et al., 2002; Sisti et al., 2007 |
| Upregulation of growth factors (protein 43, synaptophysin) | Dosage | Intact corticospinal tract | Zhao et al., 2013 |
| Inhibition of upregulation of growth-inhibiting factors (NogoA, Nogo receptors and RhoA) | Dosage | Peri-infarct cortex | Zhao et al., 2013 |
| Dopamine-dependent synaptic plasticity | Explicit feedback | Striatum | Kawagoe et al., 1998 |
| Complex spikes in Purkinje cells | Implicit feedback | Cerebellum | Kitazawa et al., 1998 |
| Cortical motor areas | |||
| Expansion or change of effector representation/cortical map, dependent on effector trained | Massed practice | Motor cortex | Plautz et al., 2000 |
| Increased excitability | - Dosage | - Motor cortex | - Liepert et al., 2000; Veerbeek et al., 2014 |
| - Variable practice | - Motor cortex | - Lage et al., 2015; Lin et al., 2011 | |
| Normalization of activation in ipsilesional cortex | Dosage | Motor cortex | Schaechter, 2004 |
| Change in sensorimotor organization | Multisensory stimulation | Motor cortex | Rosenkranz and Rothwell, 2006 |
| Increased neuronal recruitment during acquisition, decreased activity during retention | Variable practice | Prefrontal areas, PMA, inferior frontal areas | Lage et al., 2015; Lin et al., 2011 |
| Increased cortical activation in lesioned hemisphere during paretic movement | - Task-specific practice | - SMC, PMC - SMC | - Jang et al., 2003 - Wilkins et al., 2017 |
| - Modulate effector selection | - SSC/SMA, dorsal PMC | - Johansen-Berg et al., 2002 | |
| Increased cortical activation in contralesional hemisphere during paretic movement | Rhythmic cueing | SMC | Luft et al., 2004 |
| Decreased activation in contralesional hemisphere during paretic movement | Task-specific practice | - SMC, PMC, SMA - Motor cortex - SMA, PMA | - Jang et al., 2003 - Boyd et al., 2010 - Wilkins et al., 2017 |
| Increased laterality index during paretic movement | Task-specific practice | - SMC - Motor cortex - SMC, SMA, PMA | - Jang et al., 2003 - Boyd et al., 2010 - Wilkins et al., 2017 |
| Increased power spectra | Multisensory stimulation | SMC, SSC | Gomez-Rodriguez et al., 2011 |
| Fronto-parietal network | |||
| Increased activation of contralateral fronto-parietal network | Goal-oriented practice | Motor cortex, SMA, SSC, parietal areas | Nathan et al., 2012 |
| Increased activation of bilateral parietal areas, together with lateralized pre-motor areas and sensorimotor areas | Increasing difficulty | PMC, SMA, SMC, SPA, IPA | Wexler et al., 1997; Winstein et al., 1997 |
| Increased activation of bilateral parietal, premotor and visual areas | Action observation | Dorsal and ventral PMC, pre-SMA, SPA, IPA, visual cortex | Hardwick et al., 2018 |
| Increased activation of lateralized parietal areas, together with pre-motor areas | Motor imagery | Bilateral dorsal PMC, left ventral PMC, Bilateral pre-SMA, left IPA, left SPA, | Hardwick et al., 2018 |
| Increased activation and functional connectivity | Mirror therapy | - Ipsilateral motor cortex, visual processing areas | - Arya, 2016 |
| - Bilateral PMA, contralateral SMA and SMC, parietal cortex | - Hardwick et al., 2018 | ||
| Cerebellum | |||
| Increased activation | - Rhythmic cueing | - Cerebellum (ipsilesional) | - Luft et al., 2004 |
| - Modulate effector selection | - Cerebellum (bilateral) | - Johansen-Berg et al., 2002 | |
| Somatosensory Cortex | |||
| Reversal of SEP to pre-infarct | Dosage | Somatosensory cortex | Joo et al., 2012 |
| Extended networks | |||
| Auditory feedback lead to reduced activity during acquisition | Implicit feedback | SMC, SMA, opercular, temporal and parietal areas | Ronsse et al., 2011 |
| Visual feedback lead to increased activity during acquisition | Implicit feedback | Occipital gyri, cerebellar lobules and vermis | Ronsse et al., 2011 |
| Visual feedback preserved activation, when no feedback was given during testing | Implicit feedback | Occipitotemporal cortex | Ronsse et al., 2011 |
| Auditory feedback suppressed activity, when no feedback was given during testing | Implicit feedback | Auditory cortex | Ronsse et al., 2011 |
| Increased fractional anisotropy | Rhythmic cueing | Arcuate fasciculus (white matter tract connecting auditory and motor regions) | Moore et al., 2017 |
| Activity in social cue network | Social interaction | Right posterior STS, right anterior STS, right TPJ | Redcay et al., 2010 |
LTP, long-term potentiation; PMC, premotor cortex; SPA, superior parietal area; IPA, inferior parietal area; SEP, somatosensory-evoked potentials; SMC, sensorimotor cortex; SMA, supplementary motor area; SSC, somatosensory cortex; STS superior temporal sulcus; TPJ, temporoparietal junction.