Table 1.

Polyphenols characterization, metabolism, and biological activities (13, 23–26).

Source	Classes	Polyphenol	General structure	Metabolic fates	Activities
FLAVONOIDS
Olive oil, herbs, pistachio, citrus juices, lentils	Flavones	Apigenin Diosmin Luteolin Baicalein Chrysin		Deglycosylation by the gut microbiota Apigenin aglycone Naringenin phenylpropionic acids Luteolin: isomerized to eriodyctiol dihydroxyphenyl propionic acid	Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, regulation of glucose and lipid metabolism, antiviral, antibacterial, anti-parasitic
Citrus fruits, herbs, almond, pistachio	Flavanones	Didymin Eriodyctiol Hesperetin Naringenin		Deglycosylation, dihydroxylation and ring fission by colonic microbiota to phenolic acids	Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, regulate glucose and lipid metabolism, prevent hepatic steatosis, antifungal, antibacterial, antiviral, antiparasitic
Almond, pistachio, onion, wines, berries, apple, spices, tomato, cocoa, chocolate, citrus fruits	Flavonols	Isorhamnetin Kaempferol Myricetin Quercetin Rhamnetin		Deglycosylation and phase II metabolism in small intestine; Deglycosylation, dihydroxylation and ring fission by gut microbiota to phenolic acids	Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antiviral, antibacterial
Tea, wines, chocolate, cocoa, berries, drupes, tropical, and pomes fruits, herbs, nuts, pulses	Flavan-3-ols	(+)-Catechin (–)-Epicatechin (+)-Gallocatechin (–)-Epigallocatechin (–)-Epigallocatechin gallate Proanthocyanidins		Absorbed in enterocytes without deconjugation or hydrolysis, except Proanthocyanidins	Antibacterial, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antiviral, antiparasitic
Wine, grape, berries, beans	Anthocyanidins	Cyanidin Delphinidin Malvidin Pelargonidin Peonidin Petunidin		Deglycosylation and phase II metabolism in small intestine; Deglycosylation, dihydroxylation and ring fission by gut microbiota to phenolic acids	Antidiabetes, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, antioxidant, antiallergic, antibacterial, anticancer
Soy, lentils, chickpeas, peanut, common bean	Isoflavones	Daidzein Genistein Glycitein Biochanin A Formononetin		Metabolized by gut microbiota to equol	Estrogenic activity, Anti-inflammatory, hypocholesterolemic effect, antioxidant, antiobesity, antidiabetes
NON-FLAVONOIDS
Coffee, tea, cocoa, drupes, chocolate, walnuts, berries	Phenolic acids	Hydroxybenzoic acids		Free structure is absorbed in the small intestine; Esterified to sugars, organic acids, and lipids are metabolized by colonic microbiota	Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, antiparasitic
		Hydroxycinnamic acids
Pomegranate, grapes, berries, nuts	Hydrolysable tannins	Ellagitannins		Metabolized by gut microbiota to urolithins	Antioxidant, anticancer, estrogenic activity
Spices	Curcuminoids	Curcumin		Metabolized by the gut microbiota	Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, neuroprotective
Wines, chocolate, berries, peanut	Stilbenes	Resveratrol		Mainly absorbed in the small intestine and Phase II metabolism; metabolized by gut microbiota to dihydroresveratrol	Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, cardioprotective, anticancer, antiobesity