Table 2.

Upper limb kinematic variables matched with self-selected walking speed intention

Variable (°)	ABI (n = 42)		HC (n = 36)		ANCOVA OUTCOMES
	Mean ± SD	Range	Mean ± SD	Range	F	p value	Partial Eta Squared
Shoulder Flexion Mean	0.21 ± 10.58	−34.7 to 26.9	4.3 ± 3.3	− 3.5 to 11.7	6.98	< 0.01	0.09
Shoulder Flexion SD	4.4 ± 2.4	0.7 to 10.2	8.1 ± 2.9	3.1 to 18.6	24.46	< 0.01	0.25
Shoulder Flexion Peak	7.4 ± 11.1	− 29.2 to 29.9	16.7 ± 6.3	3.0 to 33.3	18.39	< 0.01	0.20
Shoulder Extension Peaka	−7.3 ± 11.2	−39.3 to 23.2	−7.7 ± 4.2	−21.4 to − 1.2	0.48	0.49	0.01
Shoulder Flexion ROM	14.7 ± 7.1	3.3 to 30.4	24.5 ± 8.5	10.8 to 54.6	18.18	< 0.01	0.20
Shoulder Abduction Mean	16.9 ± 7.7	3.7 to 36.2	6.4 ± 3.1	0.6 to 12.8	38.34	< 0.01	0.35
Shoulder Abduction SD	2.6 ± 1.3	0.4 to 6.2	1.8 ± 0.6	0.8 to 3.2	12.08	< 0.01	0.14
Shoulder Abduction Peak	21.3 ± 7.9	7.0 to 37.9	9.4 ± 3.3	2.5 to 16.5	48.49	< 0.01	0.40
Shoulder Adduction Peaka	12.9 ± 8.1	−1.27 to 34.7	3.7 ± 3.2	−2.7 to 10.4	23.26	< 0.01	0.24
Shoulder Abduction ROM	8.5 ± 4.0	1.6 to 20.6	5.8 ± 1.8	3.1 to 9.6	15.91	< 0.01	0.18
Shoulder Rotation Mean	16.7 ± 20.6	−24.4 to 62.3	10.3 ± 12.1	−10.9 to 34.4	0.40	0.53	0.01
Shoulder Rotation SD	4.0 ± 1.9	1.4 to 9.6	4.5 ± 2.2	2.0 to- 12.0	0.01	0.92	0.00
Shoulder Internal Rotation Peak	24.4 ± 20.5	−19.4 to 68.3	16.8 ± 12.0	−2.6 to 40.3	1.18	0.28	0.02
Shoulder External Rotation Peaka	9.5 ± 21.1	−37.1 to 57.5	1.9 ± 13.7	−23.3 to 27.9	0.39	0.54	0.01
Shoulder Rotation ROM	14.9 ± 6.7	5.7 to 30.2	14.9 ± 6.4	6.7 to 36.5	1.19	0.28	0.02
Elbow Flexion Mean	50.7 ± 24.1	14.3 to 109.9	11.9 ± 6.0	−0.6 to 26.1	63.52	< 0.01	0.47
Elbow Flexion SD	3.4 ± 1.5	0.9 to 8.8	9.6 ± 3.4	3.1 to 17.0	80.04	< 0.01	0.53
Elbow Flexion Peak	56.6 ± 23.3	20.8 to 115.9	27.4 ± 7.9	12.2 to 43.7	36.14	< 0.01	0.33
Elbow Extension Peaka	44.5 ± 24.8	8.9 to 103.4	−0.6 ± 7.9	−14.3 to 17.7	79.80	< 0.01	0.53
Elbow Flexion ROM	12.0 ± 5.0	4.1 to 26.8	28.1 ± 9.1	10.3 to 46.1	66.23	< 0.01	0.48
Forearm Rotation Meanb	16.6 ± 27.8	−62.8 to 67.9	17.4 ± 13.7	−6.1 to 52.9	0.18	0.67	0.00
Forearm Rotation SDb	−84.7 ± 3.4	−89.0 to −71.4	−86.3 ± 1.3	− 88.2 to −83.3	12.89	< 0.01	0.15
Forearm Pronation Peakb	27.0 ± 29.0	−51.5 to 82.7	24.2 ± 14.9	−2.2 to 63.5	1.58	0.21	0.02
Forearm Supination Peaka,b	6.3 ± 27.5	−73.6 to 54.6	11.3 ± 13.1	−10.8 to 43.3	0.32	0.57	0.00
Forearm Rotation ROM b	20.7 ± 13.0	4.3 to 69.7	12.9 ± 3.9	6.8 to 21.2	19.34	< 0.01	0.21
Wrist Flexion Mean	−5.8 ± 12.5	−41.5 to 33.4	−5.6 ± 6.4	−20.6 to 9.1	0.04	0.84	0.00
Wrist Flexion SD	2.4 ± 1.6	0.5 to 7.0	2.5 ± 1.0	1.0 to 4.7	1.43	0.24	0.02
Wrist Flexion Peak	−0.9 ± 13.3	−37.0 to 34.8	−1.0 ± 7.0	− 13.7 to 19.3	0.40	0.53	0.01
Wrist Extension Peaka	−10.2 ± 12.6	−44.5 to 32.36	−9.6 ± 6.6	−26.7 to 4.0	0.13	0.72	0.00
Wrist Flexion ROM	9.3 ± 6.3	1.9 to 25.6	8.5 ± 3.2	3.8 to 16.1	5.39	< 0.05	0.07

All units for mean ± SD and range are in degrees and for the affected upper limb. The bold variables are significantly different between groups

ABI acquired brain injury, HC healthy control, SD standard deviation, ROM range of motion

^avalues for these axis vectors are higher the lower the value is. For these variables 0 represents the neutral position, and a more negative value denotes a greater angle. For example, the mean Forearm Supination Peak for the ABI group was 6.3⁰, which indicates that the mean angle was still in a pronated position as it was > 0⁰. By contrast, mean Shoulder Extension Peak for the ABI group was −7.3⁰, indicating that the shoulder was in an extended position as it was < 0⁰. Joint angles are expressed in this manner for clinical clarity

^bThe forearm is typically reported with the healthy anatomical position as the zero reference point: i.e. fully supinated. By contrast, it is reported here as offset by 90⁰ to make the zero reference point a neutral position, with positive values more pronated and negative values more supinated