Table 2.

Families, local names, distribution, traditional uses, and chemical constituents of hepatoprotective plants.

Plants	Family	Local name	Distribution in Sudan	Traditional uses	Chemical constituents	References
1. Acacia mellifera (Vahl)	Fabaceae	Keka/kitir	Northern and Central Sudan	Bowel problems, stomach trouble, cold, treatment for malaria and inflammation	Alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, sterols, and saponins	[2, 21, 46]
2. Adansonia digitata L.	Malvaceae	Baobab tree, tabaldi, fruit (gonglize)	Widespread and throughout Northern and Central Sudan, Kordofan, Darfur	Immunostimulant, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, pesticide, antipyretic, febrifuge, and astringent in the treatment of diarrhea	Terpenoids, flavonoids, steroids, vitamins, amino acids, carbohydrates, and lipids	[15, 16, 22, 47]
3. Argemone Mexicana L.	Papaveraceae	Khash khash	Northern Sudan	Analgesic, antispasmodic, possibly hallucinogenic, and sedative, tumors, warts, skin diseases, inflammations, rheumatism, jaundice, leprosy, piles, warm infestations, and dysentery	Alkaloids as berberine, protopine, sarguinarine, optisine, and chelerytherine; the seed oil contains myristic, palmitic, oleic, and linoleic acids; flavonoids, glycosides, sterols, and phenolic compounds (tannins)	[24, 48, 49]
4. Anogeissus leiocarpus (DC. Wall)	Combretaceae	Sahib	Kassala, Kordofan, Darfur	Parasitic diseases and dysentery	Rich in derivatives of ellagic acid, polyalcohol sorbitol, terpenoids (α-amyrin, β-amyrin and β-sitosterol), and traces of alkaloids	[15, 23, 50, 51]
5. Balanites aegyptiaca L.	Balanitaceae	Hegleig tree (Ar), laloub fruit	Widespread. and throughout Northern and Central Sudan	Jaundice, liver disorders, and spleen problems; the leaves and branches are used as a fumigant for rheumatism; fruits are used aginst constipation and as an antidiabetic	The root contains rotenone and yamogenin; bark contains steroidal sapogenins	[15, 16, 25, 52, 53]
6. Cannabis sativa L.	Cannabaceae	Bango, hashish.	Cultivated in various areas in Sudan	Spasmolytic, hypnotic, analgesic to treat rabies, cholera, rheumatism, epilepsy, and tetanus; anti-inflammatory	Cannabinoids (tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)), cannabidiol (CBD) and cannabinol (CBN) are the most prevalent natural cannabinoids)	[26]
7. Capparis decidua (Forsk.)	Capparaceae	Tundub	Northern and central Sudan; Western and eastern Sudan	Jaundice, antirheumatic diuretics, antigout, anti-inflammatory, astringent, stomachic, laxative, antidote, and used for skin diseases	Alkaloids, saponins, flavonoids, tannins, sterols, cyanogenic glycosides and cumarins	[7, 15, 16, 27]
8. Combretum hartmannianum (Schweinf)	Combretaceae	Habiel, Habeel Al Gabal	El-Jebelein. White Nile, Kordofan, Darfur, Blue Nile	Boiled leaves used to cure ascites; bark and leaves extract are used for jaundice	Alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins hydrocyanic acid, and phenanthrene derivatives	[1, 2, 15, 28]
9. Dobera glabra (Forsk.)	Salvadoraceae	Al meikah	Widespread. Northern Sudan, Kordofan, Darfur, Khartoum	Ophthalmic problems	Alkaloids, saponins, flavonoids, tannins, sterols, cyanogenic glycosides and cumarins	[2, 15, 29]
10. Khaya senegalensis (Desr.)	Meliaceae	Mahogany tree	Darfur	Dysentery, diarrhea, and wound infections, fever, and remedy to treat syphilis; the bark is used in jaundice, scorpion bites, allergies	Saponins, tannins, alkaloids, glycosides, steroids, terpenoids flavonoids, and phenolic compounds	[23, 54]
11. Kigelia africana Lam.	Bignoniaceous	Umm Shutour	Central Sudan, Kassala, Kordofan, Blue Nile	Bark is used for ulcers treatment or for treatment of pneumonia and malaria	Verminosides and iridoids and series of polyphenols such as verbascoside	[2, 15, 34]
12. Lawsonia inermis L.	Lythraceae	Henna	Widespread especially in Northern and Central Sudan	Astringent, hypotensive, sedative, and against headache, jaundice, leprosy, and skin diseases	Naphthoquinone, phenolic derivatives, coumarins, xanthones, tannins, flavonoids, aliphatic components, triterpenes, sterols glucose, gallic acid, amino acids, mannitol, trace elements, and minerals	[2, 15, 35]
13. Lepidium sativum L.	Brassicaceae	Pepper cress or ELRshad	Central Sudan	Gastrointestinal disorders, arthritis, and inflammatory disorders dysentery and diarrhea	Triterpenes, alkaloids, flavanoids, tannins, coumarins, and saponins	[2, 36]
14. Moringa oleifera Lam.	Moringiaceae	Al-rawag	Widespread, Northern and Central Sudan	Liver disease, lipid disorders, arthritis, and inflammatory disorders; seeds used to clean water for drinking	Alkaloids, saponins, flavonoids, tannins, sterols, glycosides, and cumarins	[2, 15, 37]
15. Nigella sativa L.	Ranunculaceae	Black seed, black cumin, or habat elbarka	Northern Sudan, Darfur (Melit and Jebel Marra)	Liver tonics, digestive, anti-inflammatory, immunostimulant, and remedy for jaundice, antidiabetics	Thymoquinone, thymohydro quinine, dithymoquinone, p-cymene, carvacrol, and 4-terpineol	[38]
16. Occimum basilicum L.	Lamiaceae	Alryhan	Widespread throughout Northern and Central Sudan	Jaundice, stomach complaints, fever, cough, and gout, diuretic, aphrodisiac, and antidysenteric actions; the seeds are used as demulcents	Glycoside, gums, mucilage, proteins, amino acids, tannins, phenolic compound, triterpenoids steroids, sterols, saponins, flavones, and flavonoids	[16, 40, 55]
					Linalol methylchavikol, methylcinnamat, and linolen, essential oil, rosmarinic acid, citral, eugenol, and geraniol
17. Phoenix dactylifera Linn.	Palmae	Date, date palm	Northern Sudan, most parts of the Sudan	Sexual incapacity and weakness	Carbohydrates, alkaloids, steroids, flavonoids, vitamins tannins, and phenolic acids	[15, 41, 56]
18. Raphanus sativus L.	Cruciferae	Alfgel.	Widespread	Hepatoprotective, bacterial and viral infections, inflammation	Flavonoids, saponins, cumarins, and alkaloids	[42]
19. Solanum nigrum L.	Solanaceae	Enab eldib	Widespread	Inflammatory disorders, rheumatism and swellen joints, hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, edema, gonorrhea	Gallic acid, catechin, protocatechuic acid, caffeic acid, epicatechin, rutin, and naringenin	[43, 57]
			Poisonous plants in the Sudan
20. Sterculia setigera Del.	Sterculiaceae	Terter	Blue Nile, Kassala, Kordofan, Nuba mountains, Darfur and red Sea hill regions	Jaundice and bilharzia	Saponins, steroidal, sterols, and flavonoids	[15, 44, 58]
					Tannins, saponins, cardiac glycosides, and anthraquinone
21. Tamarindus indica L.	Caesalpinaceae	Aradaib.	Central Sudan	To treat fever, postpartum remedy, and measles	Tannins and alkaloids and low concentration of flavonoids and saponins	[15, 45, 59, 60]