Table 2.
Systematic and grey literature review on event-based surveillance in the field: summary of types of studies (n=15) and context and setting of event-based surveillance systems (17 publications on 15 studies)
| Publication | Context and setting | Methodology | |||||
| Title | Type of publication | Place and scope | Country, area and population | Time, scale and frequency of reporting | Type of data | Methods and attributes evaluated | |
| Outbreak setting | Ratnayake R, et al (2016). “Assessment of Community Event-Based Ssurveillance for Ebola Virus Disease, Sierra Leone, 2015.” Emerging Infectious Diseases 22(8): 1431–143719 and ERC (2015) Evaluation of the Functionality and Effectiveness of Community Event-Based Surveillance (CEBS) in Sierra Leone20 | Peer-reviewed publication. Evaluation of EBS. | Sierra Leone. Emergency setting/outbreak. Primarily rural area. Community-based. | Sierra Leone, 9/14 districts. Population 3.9 million. | Feb 2015–Sep 2015 in nine districts. Exhaustive surveillance. Immediate reporting. |
|
Description of overall type of signals over time, usefulness: identification of EVD and other outbreaks, PPV (confirmed cases/all suspect, probably, confirmed cases), sensitivity of CEBS (CEBS cases/all confirmed cases). Description of Kambia CEBS cases with no epi link: sensitivity of CEBS (CEBS cases/all confirmed cases), timeliness (days): onset to detection. |
| Stone E, et al (2016). “Community Event-Based Surveillance for Ebola Virus Disease in Sierra Leone: Implementation of a National-Level System During a Crisis.” PLoS currents 8. and ERC (2015) Evaluation of the Functionality and Effectiveness of Community Event-Based Surveillance (CEBS) in Sierra Leone20 | Peer-reviewed publication. Evaluation of EBS. | Sierra Leone. Emergency setting/outbreak. Primarily rural area. Community-based. | Sierra Leone, 9/14 districts. Population 3.9 million. | Mar 2015–Aug 2015. Exhaustive surveillance. Immediate reporting. |
|
Description of data quality (proportion of community health monitor (CHM) who correctly recalled trigger events), acceptability (proportion of CHM reporting weekly and proportion of district stakeholders finding CEBS useful), other: process evaluation of implementation. | |
| Lee CT, et al. (2016). "Evaluation of a National Call Centre and a Local Alerts System for Detection of New Cases of Ebola Virus Disease—Guinea, 2014–2015.” MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 65(9): 227–23018 | Peer-reviewed publication. Evaluation of EBS. | Guinea. Emergency setting/outbreak. Countrywide. Anyone (person/agency) can notify event. | Guinea. Population 11.8 million. | Nov 2014–Aug 2015. Exhaustive surveillance. Immediate reporting. |
|
Description of number of signals over time, sensitivity of (1) National Call Centre and (2) Local Alerts System. | |
| Miller LA, et al (2015). “Use of a nationwide call centre for Ebola response and monitoring during a 3 day house-to-house campaign—Sierra Leone, September 2014.” MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 64(1): 28–2921 | Peer-reviewed publication. Assessment of EBS response. | Sierra Leone. Emergency setting/outbreak. Countrywide. Anyone (person/agency) can notify event. | Sierra Leone. Poplation 7 million. | 19–21 Sep 2014. Exhaustive surveillance. Immediate reporting. |
|
Description of number of signals over time, other: response: proportion calls that resulted in action (assessment of the situation on site). | |
| Santa-Olalla P et al (2013). “Implementation of an alert and response system in Haiti during the early stage of the response to the cholera epidemic.” The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 89(4): 688–69725 | Peer-reviewed publication. Description of EBS. | Haiti. Emergency setting/outbreak following natural disaster (UN clusters activated). Countrywide. Anyone (person/agency) can notify event. | Haiti. Population 10 million. | Nov 2010–Nov 2011. Exhaustive surveillance. Immediate reporting. |
|
Description of number of signals over time and type of alerts, usefulness: action taken based on EBS’ data quality: proportion of documented responses and validity: comparison with IBS data, acceptability: transition to local ownership, flexibility: change of case definitions, other: exit strategy. Case study illustrating sensitivity and timeliness. |
|
| Routine setting | Clara A et al: Factors Influencing Community Event-based Surveillance: Lessons Learned from Pilot Implementation in Vietnam. Health Security Volume 16, Number S1, 2018. DOI: 10.1089/hs.2018.0066 (not published yet)13 | Peer-reviewed publication. Evaluation of EBS. | Vietnam. Routine setting. Urban and rural area. Community-based. | Vietnam, 6/63 provinces. Population 8 million; 9% of the Vietnamese population. | Sep 2016–Dec 2017. Exhaustive surveillance. Immediate reporting. |
|
Including only new information (compared with previous publication): Description of type of signals and event incidence over time, village health worker characteristics, PPV (signal:event ratio), acceptability: willingness to participate via quantitative questionnaire. Evaluation of factors influencing event incidence rate (MVA). |
| Clara A, et al (2018). “Event-Based Surveillance at Community and Healthcare Facilities, Vietnam, 2016–2017.” Emerging Infectious Diseases 24(9): 1649–1658.14 | Peer-reviewed publication. Evaluation of EBS. | Vietnam. Routine setting. Urban and rural area. Community-based. | Vietnam, 4/63 provinces. Population 6 292 800; 7% of the Vietnamese population. | Sep 2016–May 2017. Exhaustive surveillance. Immediate reporting. |
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Description of signals over time and sources of signals, usefulness: proportion agreeing EBS supports outbreak detection via quantitative questionnaire, PPV: events/signal, acceptability (and sustainability): willingness to participate via quantitative questionnaire and motivation via QI and FGD, timeliness (hours): detection to notification and detection to response. Evaluation of event definitions via QI and FGD. Case study from detection to response. |
|
| Merali S, et al (2018). “Lessons Learned from Community Event-Based Surveillance Implementation in Ghana.” ICEID. 26.–29.08.2018 Atlanta | Conference presentation. Description of EBS. | Ghana. Routine setting. Urban and rural area. Community-based. | Ghana, 2 pilot districts. Population 264 536. | Jun 2017–Aug 2018. Exhaustive surveillance. Immediate reporting. |
|
Description of type of signals, PPV (signals-events-responses), other: lessons learnt. Case study from detection to response. | |
| Larsen TM et al (2017). "Red Cross volunteers’ experience with a mobile community event-based surveillance (CEBS) system in Sierra Leone during- and after the Ebola outbreak—a qualitative study”. Health Prim Car 1 (3):1–715 and (2016). “A Qualitative Study of Volunteer Experiences With a Mobile Community Event based Surveillance (CEBS) System In Sierra Leone.” IJID 53 Suppl: S11616 | Peer-reviewed publication and conference presentation. Evaluation of EBS. | Sierra Leone. Routine setting (post-outbreak). Primarily rural area. Community-based. | Sierra Leone, 3/14 districts. Population not specified | Jul 2015/Dec 2015/Jan 2016. Exhaustive surveillance. Immediate reporting. | – Qualitative interviews among personnel. | Description of acceptance, experiences of volunteers. | |
| Toyama Y et al (2015). “Event-based surveillance in north-western Ethiopia: experience and lessons learnt in the field.” Western Pacific Surveillance and Response Journal: WPSAR 6 (3): 22–2722 | Peer-reviewed publication. Evaluation of EBS. | Ethiopia. Routine setting. Rural area. Community-based. | Ethiopia, Amhara region, 3 zones with 175 Health Centres (HCs). Population 4.5 million. | Oct 2013–Nov 2014. Sentinel surveillance in 59 HC, each serving 25 000 population. Immediate reporting. |
|
– Description of type signals and sources of signals, usefulness: action taken based on EBS, data quality: completeness of rumour log books and validity of measles signals, PPV: proportion of verified rumours, sensitivity: comparison with IBS data, acceptability: proportion of rumours that were notified by the community, timeliness (days): onset to reporting and reporting to response. | |
| Oum S et al (2005). “Community-based surveillance: a pilot study from rural Cambodia.” Tropical Medicine & International Health 10(7): 689–69726 | Peer-reviewed publication. Evaluation of EBS. | Cambodia. Routine setting. Rural area. Community-based. | Cambodia, 7 communities; served by four health centres. Population 30 000. | Sep 2000–Aug 2002. Exhaustive surveillance. Immediate reporting. |
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Description of type of signals, PPV: proportion of verified outbreaks, other: resources: costs, training and time, additional indicators for IBS component of the system evaluated but not considered here. | |
| Naser AM, et al (2015). “Integrated cluster- and case-based surveillance for detecting stage III zoonotic pathogens: an example of Nipah virus surveillance in Bangladesh.” Epidemiology & Infection 143(9): 1922–193024 | Peer-reviewed publication. Evaluation of EBS. | Bangladesh. Routine setting. Predominantly rural area. Health facility based. | Bangladesh, 10 sentinel hospitals. Population not specified. | Feb 2006–Sep 2011. Sentinel surveillance. Immediate reporting. |
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Description of: number of Nipah clusters and non-Nipah clusters identified, PPV: proportion of Nipah clusters/non-Nipah clusters, sensitivity: meningo-encephalitis cases identified with cluster surveillance among all meningo-encephalitis cases. | |
| Sharma R et al (2009). “Communicable disease outbreak detection by using supplementary tools to conventional surveillance methods under Integrated Disease Surveillance Project (IDSP), India.” Journal of Communicable Diseases 41(3): 149–15927 | Peer-reviewed publication. Description of EBS. | India. Routine setting. Countrywide. Health facility based. | India. Population 1.2 billion. | Apr 2008–Jun 2009. Exhaustive surveillance. Immediate reporting. | – Quantitative EBS data. | Description of number of calls received over time. Further surveillance systems outside the scope of this review. | |
| Tante S et al (2015). “Which surveillance systems were operational after Typhoon Haiyan?” Western Pacific Surveillance and Response Journal: WPSAR 6(Supplement 1): 66–7023 | Peer-reviewed publication. Evaluation of EBS. | Philippines. Routine EBS surveillance evaluated in emergency setting/natural disaster. Areas affected by typhoon. Anyone (person/agency) can notify event. | Philippines (3 regions including 11 surveillance units affected by typhoon). Population not specified. | 18 weeks following 11 Aug 2013 (day typhoon hit). Exhaustive surveillance. Immediate reporting. | – Quantitative survey among personnel. | Description of stability: operationality by area (yes/no) and functionality on Likert scale (1–5), other: complementary function on Likert scale. | |
| Dagina R et al (2013). “Event-based surveillance in Papua New Guinea: strengthening an International Health Regulations (2005) core capacity.” Western Pacific Surveillance and Response Journal: WPSAR 4 (3): 19–2528 | Peer-reviewed publication. Evaluation of EBS. | Papua New Guinea. Routine setting. Countrywide. Anyone (person/agency) can notify event. | Papua New Guinea. Population ~7 million. | Sep 2009–Nov 2012. Exhaustive surveillance. Immediate reporting. | – Quantitative EBS data. | Description of type of signals over time and sources of signals, usefulness: action taken based on EBS, PPV: proportion of verified events, timeliness (days): onset to reporting and reporting to verification, other: laboratory confirmation of signals. | |
Yellow: EBS systems in outbreak settings; Blue: EBS systems in routine settings. The colors are already labelled in all tables.
CBS, communinty-based surveillance; CEBS, Community-event-based surveillance; CHM, Community Health Monitor; EBS, event-based surveillance; FGD, Focus group discussion; IBS, indicator-based surveillance; MVA, multi variable analysis; PPV, Positive predictive value; QI, Qualitative interviews.