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. 2019 Dec 30;9:20338. doi: 10.1038/s41598-019-56692-5

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© The Author(s) 2019

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Device footprint as a function of (a) energy per bit and (b) operating speed for state-of-the-art silicon optical modulators. HUDS-based modulator (red star) and photonic crystal-based modulator (black circle) designs share with photonic crystal modulators the same orders of magnitude improvement in compactness and energy efficiency as compared to modulators based on MRRs and MZIs.