Table 1.

Carotenoid production in microorganisms using various metabolic engineering strategies.

Major carotenoid	Host microorganism	Fermentation conditions	Yield (titer or/and content)	Metabolic engineering approach	Reference
Lycopene	Escherichia coli	Shake Flask	448 ​mg/g	Regulation of lycopene synthesis pathway	Coussement et al. (2016)
Lycopene	Escherichia coli	Batch	220 ​mg/L	Introduction of IUP	Chatzivasileiou et al. (2019)
Lycopene	Saccharomyces cerevisiae	Fed-batch	2300 ​mg/L	Modular enzyme assembly	Kang et al. (2019)
β-carotene	Escherichia coli	Shake Flask	44.2 ​mg/g	Increasing membrane synthesis	Wu et al. (2017)
β-carotene	Escherichia coli	Fed-batch	2100 ​mg/L	Engineering central metabolic modules	Zhao et al. (2013)
β-carotene	Saccharomyces cerevisiae	Fed-batch	2370 ​mg/L (73.3 ​mg/g)	Combined modular engineering	Ma et al. (2019a)
β-carotene	Yarrowia lipolytica	Fed-batch	4000 ​mg/L	Iterative integration of multiple-copy pathway genes	Gao et al. (2017)
β-carotene	Yarrowia lipolytica	Fed-batch	6500 ​mg/L (90 ​mg/g)	Optimization of promoter-gene pairs of crt	Larroude et al. (2018)
Astaxanthin	Corynebacterium glutamicum	Shake Flask	1.7 ​mg/g	Screening different β-carotene hydroxylases	Henke et al. (2016)
Astaxanthin	Escherichia coli	Fed-batch	385.0 ​mg/L (7.0 ​mg/g)	Membrane fused expression of β-carotene hydroxylase	Park et al. (2018a)
Astaxanthin	Escherichia coli	Fed-batch	320 ​mg/L	Modular engineering	Zhang et al. (2018b)