Table 2.

Criteria for risk of bias

Criterion	Example of low risk of bias	Example of high risk of bias
Exchangeability of the control and intervention groups	The study is randomized.	The study is observational with uncontrolled self-selection into the intervention group (e.g., inducing confounding by a pre-existing interest in dietary change).
Proximity of the outcome measure to actual meat consumption or purchase	The study measures meat consumption using subjects’ actual food choices in a cafeteria.	The study measures subjects’ intended meat consumption.
Missing data	Nearly all enrolled subjects completed the intervention and provided outcome measures.	Many subjects failed to complete the intervention or were lost to follow-up before the outcome was measured.
Minimization of social desirability biases and demand characteristics	The intervention was subtly embedded in a decoy task about a topic unrelated to meat consumption, leading subjects to believe the study was not about meat consumption.	Subjects interact with experimenters who are clearly identifiable as animal welfare advocates.
Potential for selective reporting	The study was preregistered.	The study was not preregistered
Analytic reproducibility	The study has publicly available data, materials, and code.	The study does not have publicly available data, materials, or code.