Table 1.
Univariate analysis on the socio-demographic background and clinical characteristics of the participants with stratification by presence of psychological symptoms (n = 343).
| Parameters | Depression | Anxiety | Stress | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Without Symptoms n = 297 (86.6%) |
With Symptoms n = 46 (13.4%) |
p-Value | Without Symptoms n = 197 (57.4%) |
With Symptoms n = 146 (42.6%) |
p-Value | Without Symptoms n = 303 (88.3%) |
With Symptoms n = 40 (11.7%) |
p-Value | ||
| Treatment Profile | ||||||||||
| Treatments | OAD and/or diet modification | 212(87.6) | 30(12.4) | 0.393 | 142 (58.7) | 100 (41.3) | 0.471 | 217 (89.7) | 25 (10.3) | 0.234 a |
| Insulin with/out OAD and/or diet modification | 85(84.2) | 16(15.8) | 55 (54.5) | 46 (45.5) | 86 (85.1) | 15 (14.9) | ||||
| Self-Monitoring with Glucometer | No | 46 (80.7) | 11(19.3) | 0.041 a | 33 (57.9) | 24 (42.1) | 0.841 | 50 (87.7) | 7 (12.3) | 0.624 |
| Yes | 198 (90.4) | 21 (9.6) | 130 (59.4) | 89 (40.6) | 197 (90.0) | 22 (10.0) | ||||
| Socio-Demographic Factors | ||||||||||
| Age | 32.17 ± 5.08 | 31.80 ± 4.65 | 0.645 | 32.39 ± 5.04 | 31.73 ± 4.97 | 0.259 | 32.20 ± 5.00 | 31.53 ± 5.13 | 0.424 | |
| Ethnicity | Malay | 247 (89.5) | 29 (10.5) | 0.001 a | 167 (60.5) | 109 (39.5) | 0.019 a | 248 (89.9) | 28 (10.1) | 0.076 a |
| Non-Malay | 50 (74.6) | 17 (25.4) | 30 (44.8) | 37 (55.2) | 55 (82.1) | 12 (17.9) | ||||
| BMI, kg/m2 | 29.23 ± 6.30 | 29.12 ± 5.84 | 0.912 | 28.98 ± 5.57 | 29.53 ± 7.00 | 0.439 | 29.16 ± 5.96 | 29.59 ± 7.98 | 0.695 | |
| Religion | Muslim | 252 (89.7) | 29 (10.3) | 0.000 a | 169 (60.1) | 112 (39.9) | 0.031 a | 253 (90.0) | 28 (10.0) | 0.037 a |
| Non-Muslim | 45 (72.6) | 17 (27.4) | 28 (45.2) | 34 (54.8) | 50 (80.6) | 12 (19.4) | ||||
| Education | Secondary and below | 151 (84.8) | 27 (15.2) | 0.321 | 102 (57.3) | 76 (42.7) | 0.959 | 155 (87.1) | 23 (12.9) | 0.450 |
| Tertiary | 146 (88.5) | 19 (11.5) | 95 (57.6) | 70 (42.4) | 148 (89.7) | 17 (10.3) | ||||
| Employment | Unemployed | 115 (85.8) | 19 (14.2) | 0.738 | 79 (59.0) | 55 (41.0) | 0.648 | 116 (86.6) | 18 (13.4) | 0.413 |
| Employed | 182 (87.1) | 27 (12.9) | 118 (56.5) | 91 (43.5) | 187 (89.5) | 22 (10.5) | ||||
| Family Income, Ringgit Malaysia | 3714.90 ± 2400.77 | 3763.41 ± 3427.06 | 0.910 | 3638.01 ± 2490.53 | 3829.04 ± 2635.63 | 0.513 | 3690.32 ± 2397.41 | 3951.35 ± 3531.63 | 0.665 | |
| Pregnancy Planned | No | 212 (88.7) | 27 (11.3) | 0.082 a | 142 (59.4) | 97 (40.6) | 0.261 | 214 (89.5) | 25 (10.5) | 0.293 |
| Yes | 85 (81.7) | 19 (18.3) | 55 (52.9) | 49 (47.1) | 89 (85.6) | 15 (14.4) | ||||
| Marital Status | Without husband | 9 (64.3) | 5 (35.7) | 0.027 b | 8 (57.1) | 6 (42.9) | 0.982 | 10 (71.4) | 4 (28.6) | 0.067 b |
| With husband | 288 (87.5) | 41 (12.5) | 189 (57.4) | 140 (42.6) | 450(90.0) | 50(10.0) | ||||
| Parity | Nulliparous-Primiparous | 161 (85.6) | 27 (14.4) | 0.569 | 100 (53.2) | 88 (46.8) | 0.080 a | 165 (87.8) | 23 (12.2) | 0.716 |
| Multiparous ≥ 2 | 136 (87.7) | 19 (12.3) | 97 (62.6) | 58 (37.4) | 138 (89.0) | 17 (11.0) | ||||
| Smoking habit | No | 291 (86.4) | 46 (13.6) | 1.000 | 191 (56.7) | 146 (43.3) | 0.040 b | 297 (88.1) | 40 (11.9) | 1.000 |
| Yes | 6 (100.0) | 0 (0.0) | 6 (100.0) | 0(0.0) | 6 (100.0) | 0 (0.0) | ||||
| Drink alcohol | No | 291 (86.6) | 45 (13.4) | 1.000 | 193 (57.4) | 143 (42.6) | 1.000 | 297 (88.4) | 39 (11.6) | 0.584 |
| Yes | 6 (85.7) | 1 (13.3) | 4 (57.1) | 3 (42.9) | 6 (85.7) | 1 (14.3) | ||||
| Past Obstetric History | ||||||||||
| Abortion | No | 225 (88.2) | 30 (11.8) | 0.128 a | 150 (58.8) | 105 (41.2) | 0.376 | 226 (88.6) | 29 (11.4) | 0.776 |
| Yes | 72 (81.8) | 16 (18.2) | 47 (53.4) | 41 (46.6) | 77 (87.5) | 11 (12.5) | ||||
| Macrosomia | No | 290 (86.3) | 46 (13.7) | 0.600 | 192 (57.1) | 144 (42.9) | 0.703 | 296 (88.1) | 40 (11.9) | 1.000 |
| Yes | 7 (100.0) | 0 (0.0) | 5 (71.4) | 2 (28.6) | 7 (100.0) | 0 (0.0) | ||||
| Gestational hypertension | No | 283 (86.5) | 44 (13.5) | 1.000 | 188 (57.5) | 139 (42.5) | 0.922 | 289 (88.4) | 38 (11.6) | 1.000 |
| Yes | 14 (87.5) | 2 (12.5) | 9 (56.3) | 7 (43.8) | 14 (87.5) | 2 (12.5) | ||||
| Stillbirth | No | 284 (86.6) | 44 (13.4) | 1.000 | 187 (57.0) | 141 (43.0) | 0.460 | 289 (88.1) | 39 (11.9) | 1.000 |
| Yes | 13 (86.7) | 2 (13.3) | 10 (66.7) | 5 (33.3) | 14 (93.3) | 1 (6.7) | ||||
| Preterm Delivery | No | 284 (86.6) | 44 (13.4) | 1.000 | 190 (57.9) | 138 (42.1) | 0.388 | 289 (88.1) | 39 (11.9) | 1.000 |
| Yes | 13 (86.7) | 2 (13.3) | 7 (46.7) | 8 (53.3) | 14 (93.3) | 1 (6.7) | ||||
| Gestational Diabetes Mellitus | No | 230 (87.1) | 34 (12.9) | 0.597 | 153 (58.0) | 111 (42.0) | 0.722 | 239 (90.5) | 25 (9.5) | 0.021 a |
| Yes | 67 (84.8) | 12 (15.2) | 44 (55.7) | 35 (44.3) | 64 (81.0) | 15 (19.0) | ||||
| Current Medical Problems | ||||||||||
| Hypertension | No | 284 (86.6) | 44 (13.4) | 1.000 | 188 (57.3) | 140 (42.7) | 0.837 | 291 (88.7) | 37 (11.3) | 0.398 |
| Yes | 13 (86.7) | 2 (13.3 | 9 (60.0) | 6 (40.0) | 12 (80.0) | 3 (20.0) | ||||
| Allergy | No | 294 (87.5) | 42 (12.5) | 0.007 b | 195 (58.0) | 141 (42.0) | 0.141 b | 300 (89.3) | 36 (10.7) | 0.004 b |
| Yes | 3 (42.9) | 4 (57.1) | 2 (28.6) | 5 (71.4) | 3 (42.9) | 4 (57.1) | ||||
| Asthma | No | 273 (86.9) | 41 (13.1) | 0.567 | 186 (59.2) | 128 (40.8) | 0.026 a | 280 (89.2) | 34 (10.8) | 0.128 b |
| Yes | 24 (82.8) | 5 (17.2) | 11 (37.9) | 18 (62.1) | 23 (79.3) | 6 (20.7) | ||||
| Heart disease | No | 291 (86.4) | 46 (13.6) | 1.000 | 192 (57.0) | 145 (43.0) | 0.246 b | 297 (88.1) | 40 (11.9) | 1.000 |
| Yes | 6 (100.0) | 0 (0.0) | 5 (83.3) | 1 (16.7) | 6 (100.0) | 0 (0.0) | ||||
| Anaemia | No | 278 (86.6) | 43 (13.4) | 1.000 | 183 (57.0) | 138 (43.0) | 0.543 | 282 (87.9) | 39 (12.1) | 0.491 |
| Yes | 19 (86.4) | 3 (13.6) | 14 (63.6) | 8 (36.4) | 21 (95.5) | 1 (4.5) | ||||
| Thalassemia | No | 294 (86.5) | 46 (13.5) | 1.000 | 196 (57.6) | 144 (42.4) | 0.577 | 300 (88.2) | 40 (11.8) | 1.000 |
| Yes | 3 (100.0) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (33.3) | 2 (66.7) | 3 (100.0) | 0 (0.0) | ||||
| Family History | ||||||||||
| Diabetes mellitus | No | 133 (88.1) | 18 (11.9) | 0.473 | 88 (58.3) | 63 (41.7) | 0.779 | 136 (90.1) | 15 (9.9) | 0.377 |
| Yes | 164 (85.4) | 28 (14.6) | 109 (56.8) | 83 (43.2) | 167 (87.0) | 25 (13.0) | ||||
| Heart Disease | No | 250 (86.5) | 39 (13.5) | 0.916 | 170 (58.8) | 119 (41.2) | 0.229 a | 255 (88.2) | 34 (11.8) | 0.891 |
| Yes | 47 (87.0) | 7 (13.0) | 27 (50.0) | 27 (50.0) | 48 (88.9) | 6 (11.1) | ||||
| Hypertension | No | 138 (85.7) | 23 (14.3) | 0.655 | 88 (54.7) | 73 (45.3) | 0.328 | 142 (88.2) | 19 (11.8) | 0.940 |
| Yes | 159 (87.4) | 23 (12.6) | 109 (59.9) | 73 (40.1) | 161 (88.5) | 21 (11.5) | ||||
| Depression and Anxiety | No | 290 (87.6) | 41 (12.4) | 0.013 b | 193 (58.3) | 138 (41.7) | 0.086 a | 294 (88.8) | 37 (11.2) | 0.153 b |
| Yes | 7 (58.3) | 5 (41.7) | 4 (33.3) | 8 (66.7) | 9 (75.0) | 3 (25.0) | ||||
| Gestational Diabetes Mellitus | No | 194 (88.6) | 25 (11.4) | 0.149 a | 128 (58.4) | 91 (41.6) | 0.614 | 196 (89.5) | 23 (10.5) | 0.374 |
| Yes | 103 (83.1) | 21 (16.9) | 69 (55.6) | 55 (42.6) | 107 (86.3) | 17 (13.7) | ||||
Data are presented as either n (%) or mean ± SD. a Pearson Chi-Square at p < 0.25 entered multivariate logistic regression; b Fisher’s Exact Test at p < 0.25 entered multivariate logistic regression.