Table 1.
Characteristics of individuals with data on dietary behaviours (n = 24,332) in seven low- and middle- income countries, overall and by sex a
| Overall (95% CI) | Male (95% CI) | Female (95% CI) | p-value* | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Socio-demographic characteristics | ||||
| Sex (%) | ||||
| Males | 49.89 (48.81. 50.96) | – | – | |
| Females | 50.11 (49.04, 51.18) | – | – | |
| Age (mean, years) | 36.33 (36.03, 36.63) | 36.24 (35.81, 36.66) | 36.42 (36.08, 36.76) | 0.47 |
| Educational Attainment (%) | ||||
| No formal schooling | 14.79 (13.48, 16.20) | 11.29 (9.96, 12.77) | 18.26 (16.64, 20.01) | < 0.001 |
| Primary school | 30.51 (29.18, 31.88) | 32.25 (30.42, 34.14) | 28.78 (27.53, 30.07) | |
| Secondary school or above | 54.70 (53.23, 56.17) | 56.46 (54.45, 58.45) | 52.95 (51.37, 54.53) | |
| Working (%) | 54.18 (52.50, 55.83) | 68.74 (66.98, 70.45) | 39.70 (37.29, 42.16) | < 0.001 |
| Behavioural characteristics | ||||
| Physical Activity (%) | ||||
| Achieving 600 MET a week | 84.50 (82.61, 86.21) | 88.92 (87.62, 90.11) | 80.10 (77.30, 82.63) | < 0.001 |
| Alcohol consumption | ||||
| Mean number of drinks per week | 3.84 (3.45, 4.24) | 6.47 (5.80, 7.15) | 1.23 (1.00, 1.45) | < 0.001 |
| Consuming alcohol during a week (%) | ||||
| No alcohol use reported | 70.65 (69.26, 71.99) | 56.15 (54.29, 57.99) | 85.06 (83.62, 86.40) | < 0.001 |
| Consume one alcoholic drink or more | 29.35 (28.01, 30.74) | 43.85 (42.01, 45.71) | 14.94 (13.60, 16.38) | |
| Tobacco use, smoke or smokeless (%) | ||||
| No tobacco use | 69.69 (68.31, 71.04) | 51.51 (49.54, 53.49) | 87.79 (86.84, 88.68) | < 0.001 |
| Past use of tobacco | 19.29 (18.13, 20.50) | 32.15 (30.300, 34.05) | 6.48 (5.83, 7.19) | |
| Current use of tobacco | 11.02 (10.34, 11.74) | 16.33 (15.21, 17.53) | 5.73 (5.18, 6.33) | |
| Cardiovascular risk factors | ||||
| Waist circumference | ||||
| Mean waist circumference | 85.22 (84.76, 85.68) | 84.45 (83.98, 84.92) | 86.01 (85.34, 86.68) | < 0.001 |
| High waist circumference (%) b | 26.01 (24.96, 27.08) | 11.02 (10.20, 11.89) | 41.35 (39.73, 43.00) | < 0.001 |
| Blood pressure measures | ||||
| Mean systolic blood pressure | 125.83 (125.47, 126.19) | 128.47 (127.96, 128.97) | 123.21 (122.76, 123.67) | < 0.001 |
| Mean diastolic blood pressure | 79.76 (79.39, 80.13) | 79.90 (79.39, 80.41) | 79.62 (79.26, 79.98) | 0.26 |
| Hypertension (%) c | 26.69 (25.82, 27.58) | 27.44 (26.12, 28.81) | 25.95 (25.01, 26.92) | 0.05 |
| Self-reported diagnosed hypertension | 11.26 (10.76, 11.79) | 8.74 (8.10, 9.43) | 13.77 (13.06, 14.51) | < 0.001 |
| Undiagnosed hypertension | 15.43 (14.71, 16.18) | 18.70 (17.54, 19.92) | 12.18 (11.49. 12.91) | |
| Blood glucose measures | ||||
| Mean blood glucose measure | 4.83 (4.79, 4.87) | 4.79 (4.74, 4.83) | 4.87 (4.82, 4.93) | 0.006 |
| Diabetes (%) d | 5.82 (5.23, 6.47) | 4.94 (4.30, 5.66) | 6.66 (5.92, 7.49) | < 0.001 |
| Self-reported diagnosed diabetes | 3.38 (2.86, 3.99) | 2.59 (2.10, 3.19) | 4.13 (3.45, 4.93) | < 0.001 |
| Undiagnosed diabetes | 1.79 (1.53, 2.10) | 1.72 (1.35, 2.18) | 1.86 (1.54, 2.25) | |
a Percentages and means accounts for sampling design with survey weights re-scaled by the survey’s sample size such that all countries contribute equally to estimates. Differences between sexes tested using Pearson’s chi-squared test for categorical variables and linear regression analysis for continuous variables
bDefinition of high waist circumference, waist ≥102 cm for males and waist ≥88 cm for females
c Hypertension was defined as an average systolic blood pressure (SBP) measurement > 140 mmHg, or their average diastolic blood pressure (DBP) measurement > 90 mmHg, or they reported taking medication for hypertension. Self-reported diagnosed hypertension were those who met the criteria for hypertension and also reported a diagnosis of hypertension. Undiagnosed individuals were those who had a high SBP (> 140 mmHg) or a high DBP (> 90 mmHg), did not report taking hypertension medication, and did not report a hypertension diagnosis
d Diabetes was defined as having an average fasting blood glucose (FBG) level ≥ 7 mmol/L, or having a random blood glucose (RBG) level of ≥11.1 mmol/L or on medication for diabetes. Individuals with self-reported diagnosed diabetes met the criteria for diabetes and also reported a diagnosis of diabetes. Undiagnosed individuals were those who had a high FBG (≥7 mmol/L) or a high RBG (≥11.1 mmol/L), did not report taking diabetes medication, and did not report a diabetes diagnosis
*p-value for difference between males and females