Table 4. Assessed and significant risk factors in the included studies.
mv = multivariate, uv = univariate, HH = household, abx = antibiotics, SES = socio-economic status, HC = health centre, ART = antiretroviral therapy, VL = viral load, PROM = premature rupture of membranes, WASH = water, sanitation and hygiene. UTI = urinary tract infection, NR = not reported. * confidence interval crosses 1; original publication used fisher’s exact test and found p < 0.05.
| Study | Risk factors assessed | Analysis | Significant risk factors | Odds ratio (95%
CI) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Tande 2009 | Adults with direct contact with the children in
orphanage |
uv | Contact with orphanage children | 19.7 (3.2 - 201.3) |
| Andriatahina
2010 |
Age, gender, patient origin (home vs health
facility), abx or hospitalisation last 30days, admitting dx, infection on admission |
mv | Hospitalisation last 30d | 7.4 (2.9-18.3) |
| Herindrainy 2011 | SES, no. of rooms occupied, ratio occupants:
room |
mv | Occupation HH head unemployed
vs manager |
9.1 (1.6-53.9) |
| Isendahl 2012 | Age, gender, weight, MUAC, breastfeeding,
bedsharing, children in HH, abx, hospitalisation |
uv | Bedsharing | 1.9 (1.0 - 3.4) |
| Lonchel 2013 | Age, gender, hospital, diagnosis, abx within
3m, hospitalisation within 1yr |
mv | Hospitalisation during the previous
year |
4.13 (1.37–12.78) |
| Admission with infection | 0.30 (0.10–0.82) | |||
| Intermediate vs tertiary hospital | 4.10 (1.77–9.59) | |||
| Schaumburg
2013 |
Age, hospitalisation, residence, sex, diagnosis,
abx use |
mv | Age <=5 | 2.2 (1.1–4.8) |
| Hospitalization 5–7 days vs < 5 | 5.1 (1.6–18.4) | |||
| Hospitalization for =7 days vs < 5 | 30.6 (5.8–566.0) | |||
| Hospital stay during the past
12 months |
2.1 (1.1–4.0) | |||
| Nelson 2014 | For neonates: Gestation, birthweight, gender,
delivery method, ward, abx use |
uv | Antibiotic use | 10.8 (0.6 - 186) * |
| For mothers: Delivery mode, admission within
30d, abx within 3m, abx within 30d, current abx, catheter, HIV status |
Nothing | |||
| Chereau 2015 | Study area, age, education, marital status,
type house, electricity, type of birth attendant, toilets, water, animals at home, hospitalisation, abx use |
mv | Private inside access to drinking
water |
0.3 (0.1–0.8) |
| Desta 2016 | Higher maximum bed capacity per room,
increasing number of patients admitted in single room |
uv | Sharing room vs not | 4.0 (2.3 to 5.3) |
| Djuikoue 2016 | Age, pregnancy, abx last 3m, hospital last 3m | uv | None | |
| Farra 2016 | Age, gender, comorbidity, SES, nutritional
status, animals at home, toilets, urban/rural, hh members, meals |
mv | Highest SES class vs lowest | 31.06 (2.49–387.13) |
| Kurz 2016 | Age, gender , residence, ward, referral, other
healthcare 3m, abx 3m, education, SES, water source, food, time to HC, caregiver ESBL status |
mv | ESBL colonised caregiver, | 2.88 (1.80-4.61) |
| Antibiotics within 3 months, | 2.70 (1.59-4.58) | |||
| Frequently consume eggs | 6.52 (1.75-24.31) | |||
| Boil water prior to drinking | 0.59 (0.37-0.92) | |||
| Mshana 2016 | Age, region, no of children in house, abx use
within 1m, admission within 1yr |
mv | Older age (per yr), | 1.07 (1.04–1.10) |
| Hospital admission last yr | 7.4 (1.43–38.5) | |||
| Abx last 3m | 27 (6.63–116), | |||
| Tellevik, 2016 | Age, gender, residence, parental education,
child group, nutritional status, use of abx within 14 days |
mv | HIV vs no HIV, | 9.99 (2.52–39.57), |
| Kinondoni district, | 2.62 (1.49–4.60) | |||
| Abx last 14d | 1.61 (1.07–2.41) | |||
| Moremi 2017 | Age, education, herb use, source of income,
source of food, street child type |
mv | Local herb use, | 3.3 (1.31–8.31), |
| Sleep on streets vs not | 2.8 (1.04–7.65) | |||
| Wilmore 2017 | Age, gender, CD4, VL, ART duration, admitted
to hospital with pneumonia in last 12m, adm to hospital in at 12 m |
mv | ART <1yr | 8.47 (2.22–2.27) |
| Admission with pneumonia in last
12m |
8.47 (1.12–64.07) | |||
| Marando 2018 | Age, gender, weight, admission where, clinical
factors, abx use, PROM |
mv | Current abx use | 1.73 (1.00-2.97), |
| ESBL colonised mother | 2.19 (1.26-3.79) | |||
| Moremi 2018 | Age, gender, history of antibiotic use, history of
admission, history of surgery |
mv | Older age (per year) | 1.01 (1.00–1.02) |
| Nikema
Pessinaba 2018 |
Age, gender, site, drinking water source, time
to sample analysis |
mv | Drink non borehole water vs
borehole |
3.47 (1.22-9.82) |
| Sanneh 2018 | WASH behaviours, hospitalised within 3m,
invasive procedures, abx within 3m, abx from street, completing abx, diarrhoea/UTI 3m, food handling training |
uv | Lack of food handling training and
knowledge of the principle of food safety |
NR |
| Abx within 3m | NR | |||
| Stanley
2018 |
Age, gender, health facility, presentation | uv | none |