Table 2.
The effects of primary/secondary immigration by GNP on psychological distress (N = 1883)
| Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | Model 5 | Model 6 | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Exp(b) (95% CI) | Exp(b) (95% CI) | Exp(b) (95% CI) | Exp(b) (95% CI) | Exp(b) (95% CI) | Exp(b) (95% CI) | |||||||
| Foreign-born by level of economic development (GNP) of origin country | ||||||||||||
| Upper-GNPa | 1.00 | (0.86, 1.18) | ||||||||||
| Lower-GNPa | 0.88 | (0.79, 0.99)* | ||||||||||
| GNP by migration type | ||||||||||||
| Upper-GNPa | ||||||||||||
| Primary | 1.04 | (0.88, 1.23) | 1.03 | (0.86, 1.22) | 1.02 | (0.81, 1.27) | 1.24 | (0.86, 1.79) | 1.20 | (0.87, 1.65) | ||
| Secondary | 0.78 | (0.58, 1.06) | 0.83 | (0.62, 1.11) | 1.12 | (0.74, 1.69) | 1.44 | (0.84, 2.45) | 1.18 | (0.74, 1.88) | ||
| Lower-GNPa | ||||||||||||
| Primary | 0.76 | (0.67, 0.86)* | 0.81 | (0.68, 0.96)** | 0.78 | (0.62, 0.97)* | 0.97 | (0.66, 1.41) | 0.91 | (0.65, 1.26) | ||
| Secondary | 1.17 | (0.99, 0.38)b | 1.23 | (1.02, 1.48)*,b | 1.63 | (1.16, 2.30)**,b | 2.05 | (1.26, 3.32)**,b | 1.41 | (0.93, 2.15)b | ||
| Length of residence in Canada | 0.99 | (0.99, 1.00) | 1.00 | (0.99, 1.00) | 1.00 | (0.99, 1.00) | 0.99 | (0.99, 1.00) | 1.00 | (0.99, 1.01) | 1.00 | (0.99, 1.01) |
| Ethnic/cultural identificationc | ||||||||||||
| Arab or West Asian | 1.27 | (1.05, 1.53)** | 1.26 | (1.05, 1.52)** | 1.31 | (1.09, 1.58)** | 1.15 | (0.98, 1.36) | ||||
| African | 1.09 | (0.84, 1.42) | 1.18 | (0.89, 1.55) | 1.11 | (0.84, 1.47) | 1.34 | (1.05, 1.71)* | ||||
| Caribbean | 1.04 | (0.83, 1.32) | 1.06 | (0.84, 1.33) | 0.99 | (0.78, 1.25) | 1.05 | (0.85, 1.29) | ||||
| East Asian | 1.13 | (0.93, 1.37) | 1.13 | (0.93, 1.37) | 1.10 | (0.91, 1.33) | 1.06 | (0.90, 1.26) | ||||
| European | 1.17 | (1.03, 1.32)** | 1.17 | (1.03, 1.32)** | 1.16 | (1.03, 1.32)* | 1.08 | (0.97, 1.21) | ||||
| Latin American | 1.17 | (0.90, 1.53) | 1.17 | (0.90, 1.52) | 1.13 | (0.87, 1.47) | 1.01 | (0.80, 1.27) | ||||
| South Asian | 1.29 | (1.07, 1.56)** | 1.31 | (1.09, 1.58)** | 1.32 | (1.10, 1.59)** | 1.17 | (0.99, 1.38) | ||||
| Female (vs. male) | 1.11 | (1.02, 1.21)** | 1.12 | (1.03, 1.22)** | 1.11 | (1.02, 1.20)* | 1.10 | (1.02, 1.18) | ||||
| Age | 0.99 | (0.99, 1.00)*** | 0.99 | (0.99, 1.00)*** | 0.99 | (0.98, 0.99)*** | 0.99 | (0.98, 0.99)*** | ||||
| Married or common, law (vs. other) | 0.79 | (0.72, 0.87)*** | 0.79 | (0.72, 0.87)*** | 0.82 | (0.75, 0.91)*** | 0.89 | (0.82, 0.98)** | ||||
| Number of children under the age of 18 | 0.97 | (0.93, 1.02) | 0.97 | (0.93, 1.02) | 0.98 | (0.94, 1.02) | 1.01 | (0.97, 1.05) | ||||
| Negative life events | 1.12 | (1.09, 1.14)*** | 1.12 | (1.09, 1.14)*** | 1.11 | (1.08, 1.13)*** | 1.09 | (1.07, 1.11)*** | ||||
| Immigrant entrance class (vs. other) | ||||||||||||
| Work visa | 0.88 | (0.68, 1.15) | 0.88 | (0.68, 1.14) | 0.83 | (0.66, 1.05) | ||||||
| Landed immigrant | 1.01 | (0.86, 1.19) | 0.98 | (0.83, 1.16) | 0.97 | (0.84, 1.12) | ||||||
| Number of intermediary countries of residence pre-migration | 0.79 | (0.63, 0.98)* | 0.76 | (0.61, 0.95)* | 0.92 | (0.76, 1.11) | ||||||
| Length of residence in intermediary country/countries | 1.00 | (0.96, 1.04) | 1.01 | (0.97, 1.04) | 1.01 | (0.97, 1.04) | ||||||
| Limited English-speaking ability (vs. proficient) | 1.05 | (0.85, 1.31) | 1.02 | (0.82, 1.26) | 0.91 | (0.75, 1.10) | ||||||
| Pre-migration employment tenure | 1.02 | (1.00, 1.04)* | 1.01 | (1.00, 1.02)* | ||||||||
| Total years of education | ||||||||||||
| Pre-migration | 0.97 | (0.95, 0.99)** | 0.99 | (0.97, 1.01) | ||||||||
| Post-migration and native-born | 1.00 | (0.99, 1.02) | 1.02 | (1.00, 1.03)** | ||||||||
| Household income | 0.99 | (1.00, 1.00)** | 0.99 | (1.00, 1.00) | ||||||||
| Employed (vs. unemployed) | 0.87 | (0.79, 0.95)** | 0.96 | (0.89, 1.04) | ||||||||
| Mastery | 0.90 | (0.90, 0.91)*** | ||||||||||
*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001 (two-tailed test)
aCanadian-born is the reference group
bSignificantly different from primary migrants of the same origin country GNP (based on post hoc tests)
cNorth American/Canadian ethnic/cultural identification is the reference group