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. 2020 Jan 21;11:418. doi: 10.1038/s41467-020-14333-w

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© The Author(s) 2020

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 2 — a Enlarged XRD patterns (with 2θ in the range of 24°–45°); b Vacancy concentration of TiO₂ in bulk and surface (determined by chemical titration and XPS analysis, respectively); c Intensity of monovacancies from positron annihilation lifetime spectra (PALS), in which I₁ is the relative intensity of τ₁ (metal monovacancies); d X-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES) and e Fourier transforms of k-space oscillations of Ti K edge; f high-resolution O1s XPS spectra (fitted); g The positions of flat-band potential and UV-photoelectron spectroscopy (UPS) VB (valance band) binding energy.