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. 2020 Jan 21;11:399. doi: 10.1038/s41467-019-14278-9

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© The Author(s) 2020

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 4 — a The liquid contacts a virgin surface (before CE). b The water molecules and ions in the liquid impact the virgin surface and electron transfer between the water and the surface. c The surface is charged and the charge carriers are mainly electrons (WCA > 90°, pH = 7), some ions may be generated on the surface caused by the ionization reaction etc. d The opposite polarity ions are attracted to migrate toward the charged surface by the Coulomb force, electrically screening the first charged layer.