Table 4.

Polyphenols and gene modulations on gluconeogenesis pathways.

Polyphenols	Genes Affected	Function	Pathways	Cells/Tissue Type	Ref.
In vitro models
Cinnamon extract (1–25 µg/mL)	↓ PEPCK, ↓ G6Pase	↓ Hepatic glucose output	PEPCK	Cells-H4IIE	[126]
Fructus Corni (50 mg/mL)	↓ PEPCK	↓ Hepatic Glucose out put	Gluconeogenesis	Cells-H4IIE	[128]
EGCG (5–25 µM)	↓ PEPCK, ↓ G6Pase	↓ Hepatic glucose out put	PI3K	Cells-H4IIE	[57]
EGCG (≤1–10 µM)	↓ PEPCK, ↓ G6Pase	↓ Hepatic glucose output	AMPK/CaMKK	Cells-H4IIE	[130]
Germinated black rice (50 ppm)	↓ Pck1, ↓ Fbp1	↓ Hepatic glucose output	Gluconeogenesis	Cells-HepG2	[134]
In vivo models
Germinated black rice (50–100 ppm)	↓ Pck1, ↓ Fbp1	↓ Hepatic glucose output	Gluconeogenesis	Liver-Sprague-Dawley rats	[134]
Hesperidin and Naringin (0.2 g/kg BW)	↓ G6Pase, ↓ PEPCK	↓ Hepatic glucose output	Gluconeogenesis	Liver-C57BL/KsJ-db/db mice	[136]
Resveratrol (0.02% w/w)	↓ PECK, ↓ G6P, ↑ GK, ↓ SREBP-1c	↑ Hepatic glucose uptake	PEPCK/AMPK	Liver-C57BL/KsJ-db/db mice	[137]
Fermented food paste (0.1–1.0 kg/BW)	↑ G6PD, ↑ GCK, ↑ PFK, ↑ 6PGD	↑ Glycogen synthesis, ↑ Hepatic insulin sensitivity, ↓ Hepatic glucose output	Glycolysis	Liver-Balb/c mice	[138]

PEPCK—Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase; G6Pase—Glucose-6-phosphatase; Pck1—Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase 1; Fbp1—Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase 1; GK—glucokinase; SREBP-1c—sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1c; G6PD—glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase; GCK—glucokinase gene; PFK—Phosphofructokinase; 6PGD—6-Phosphogluconate dehydrogenase deficiency; AMPK—Adenine monophosphate activated protein kinase; CaMKK—Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase; ↑—increased gene expression; ↓—decreased gene expression.