Table 6.
Author | Study Population | Study Design | Main Findings | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lipid Metabolism | Glucose Metabolism | Protein Metabolism | |||
Schübel et al (2018)29 | 150 overweight and obese (50% Male – 50% female) - CCR, n=49 - ICR, n=49 - CG, n=52.
|
→ICR: 5 days without energy restriction and 2days with 75% ↓ in energy needs→ CCR: 20% daily ↓ in energy needs →CG: NC in calorie intake (12 weeks intervention phase) (12 weeks maintenance phase) (26 weeks follow-up phase). |
NS change | ↓ The glucose for CCR compared with ICR (P< 0.01) (at week 12). NS difference between 3 groups (at week s 24–50) |
NM |
Oh et al (2018)30 | 45 overweight and obese (26 Females- 19 Males): -ADCR, n=13 -Exercise, n=10 -Exercise + ADCR, n=12) -CG, n=10
|
For 8 weeks Exercise-ADCR and ADCR groups: → 3 Alternately fasted days (25% of daily energy intake, food consumed between 12 pm and 2 pm) → 4 Feed days (ad libitum) |
In ADCR group NS changes | In ADCR group NS changes | NM |
Trepanowski et al (2017)18 | 100 obese adults (86 Females- 14 Males): - ADF, n=34 - CR, n=35 - CG, n=31
|
For 1 year (6-month weight-loss + 6-month weight-maintenance): →ADF: 25% of energy needs on fast days; 125% of energy needs on alternating “feast days” →CR: 75% of energy needs every day →CG: no-intervention |
NS change in TC and TG. Just At month 6, ↑ HDL-C in ADF versus the daily CR (P<0.05) Just at month 12, ↑ LDL-C in the ADF group (P<0.05) |
NS changes. | NM |
Aliasghari et al (2017)37 | 83 patients with NAFLD (57 Males – 26 Females): -FG: n=42, Age: 37.59 ± 7.06 years -NFG: n=41, Age: 35.8 ± 7.33 years. |
Ramadan fasting | NS changes | ↓ Fasting blood glucose (P<0.01) | NM |
Alsubheen et al (2017)47 | 17 healthy males: -FG: n=9, Age: 32.2 ± 7.8 years -NFG: n=8, Age: 35 ± 9.4years. |
Ramadan fasting | NS change in TC | NS changes | NM |
Bak et al (2016)79 | 18 healthy males -Lean, n=9, BMI:19 to 23 kg/m2 -Obese, n=9, BMI: 32 to 40 kg/m2
|
Examination on two occasions separated by a minimum of 21 days: 1) after an overnight fast of 12 h 2) after 72 h of fasting. |
In obese: ↑ whole body lipolysis | ↓ in glucose for both groups (P < 0.01) | Obese:↓ urea and amino acid fluxes both in the basal and 72-h fasted state. ↓ forearm muscle protein breakdown per 100 mL of forearm tissue, differences that persisted after 72 h of fasting |
Syam et al (2016)80 | 43 volunteers (7 Males- 36 Females)
|
Ramadan fasting | NM | NM | NS change in Protein body mass (−0.049 ± 0.170 kg, P=0.561) |
Moro et al (2016)42 | 34 resistance-trained males: -TRF, n= 17 -ND, n= 17
|
For 8 weeks: →TRF: 100% of their energy needs in an 8-h each day → three meals at 1 p.m., 4 p.m., and 8 p.m. and fasting period = 16h (2826 ± 412.3 kcal/day, carbohydrates 53.2 ± 1.4%, fat 24.7 ± 3.1%, protein 22.1 ± 2.6%) →ND: 100% of their energy needs three meals consumed at 8 a.m., 1 p.m., and 8 p.m. (3007 ± 444.7 kcal/day, carbohydrates 54.7 ± 2.2%, fat 23.9 ± 3.5%, protein 21.4 ± 1.8). |
In TRF: ↓ HDL-C (45.11 ± 5.89 to 58.06 ± 6.11 mg/dl) (p=0.014) ↓TG (54.11 ± 15.12 to 115.23 ± 11.77 mg/dl) (p=0.0052). NS changes in TC and LDL-C. |
In TRF: ↓Glucose (96.64 ± 85.92 to 85.92± 7.13 mg/dl) (p=0.0011) |
NM |
Gnanou et al (2015)53 | 20 healthy men Age: 19–23 years. |
Ramadan fasting | NM | ↓ Blood glucose (p< 0.01) | NM |
Varady et al (2013)35 | 32 normal-weight and overweight (22 Females- 8 Males): - ADF, n= 15 -CG, n=15
|
For 12 weeks →ADF group alternated between fasting days (25% of kcal needs as determined by Mifflin equation; consumed between 12 pm and 2 pm) and ad libitum feeding days. |
In ADF group: ↓Triacylglycerol (20 ± 8%, P < 0.05) ↑ LDL particle size (4 ± 1 Å, P < 0.01) NC in LDL-C, HDL-C |
NM | NM |
Bhutani et al (2013)32 | 83 obese (80 Females - 3 Males) -E-ADF, n=18 -ADF, n=25 -Exercise, n=24 -CG, n=16
|
For 12 weeks →ADF and E-ADF groups alternated between fasting days (25% of kcal needs as determined by Mifflin equation; consumed between 12 pm and 2 pm) and ad libitum feeding days. |
↓ TC (p =0.053). NS change in TG, HDL-C, LDL-C. |
NS change in blood glucose | NC in C-reactive protein. |
Eshghinia & Mohammadzadeh (2013)33 | 15 overweight and obese women.
|
For 6 weeks, On 3 weekly fasting days; Saturday, Monday, and Thursday (25%– 30% of energy needs) On 4 feeding days (1700–1800 kcal/d) |
NS changes | NM | NM |
Teng et al (2013)25 | 56 Men: - FCR, n=28 - CG, n=28.
|
For 12 weeks: → FCR: 300–500 kcal/d ↓ in caloric intake (For 2 non-consecutive days per week). →CG: NC in energy needs |
A significant interaction effect in →TC (p<0.001) →LDL-C (p<0.05) → (TC)/HDL (P<0.05) NS effect in HDL and TG |
NS change | NM |
Klempel et al (2013)39 | 32 obese women: -ADF-HF, n=17-ADF-LF, n=18
|
For 8 weeks Alternated between fasting days (25% of kcal needs as determined by Mifflin equation; consumed between 12 pm and 2 pm) and ad libitum feeding days. The two diets: →ADF–HF (45% fat, 40% carbohydrate and 15% protein), →ADF–LF (25% fat, 60% carbohydrate and 15% protein). |
↓ TC: 13 ± 2 and 16 ± 2% (P<0.0001) in the ADF–HF and ADF–LF. ↓ LDL-C: 18 ± 5 and 25 ± 3% (P<0.0001) in the ADF–HF and ADF–LF. ↓ TG: 14 ± 5 and 14 ± 4% (P<0.001) in the ADF–HF and ADF–LF. NC in HDL-C in either group. |
NM | NM |
Mirzaei et al (2012)58 | 14 male collegiate wrestlers (Age: 20.12±2.5 years). |
Ramadan fasting | ↓TC (P=0.011) ↓ LDL-C (P=0.001). ↑ HDL-C (P=0.045). |
↓ Blood glucose (p=0.001). | NM |
Shehab et al (2012)75 | 65 subjects -42 Males (BMI: 28.1±4.4 kg/m2) - 18 Females (BMI: 27.2 ±5.5 kg/m2).
|
Ramadan fasting | ↑HDL-C (P<0.001) ↓LDL-C (P< 0.001) NS change in TC and TG |
NM | NM |
Nematy et al (2012)74 |
- 38 Males (Age: 29–70 years) - 44 Females (Age: 54.0 ± 10 years) |
Ramadan fasting | ↓TC(P = 0.02) ↓TG (P <0.001) ↓VLDL-C (P <0.001) ↓ LDL-C (P <0.001) ↓TC/HDL (P <0.001) ↓LDL/HDL ratio (P <0.001) ↑HDL-C (P <0.001) |
NS modification. | NM |
Varady et al (2011)40 | 59 overweight and obese (50 Females- 9 Males): ADF, n=13 CR, n=12 Exercise, n=12 Control, n=12
|
For 12 weeks: ADF and E-ADF groups alternated between fasting days (25% of kcal needs as determined by Mifflin equation; consumed between 12 pm and 2 pm) and ad libitum feeding days. |
In ADF: NC in TC and HDL-C ↓LDL-C (P < 0.05) (10 ± 4%) ↓TG (P < 0.05) (17 ± 5%) |
NM | NM |
Varady et al (2009)34 | 60 obese (12 Females, 4 Males)
|
For 8 weeks: Alteration between fasting days (25% of kcal needs as determined by Mifflin equation; consumed between 12 pm and 2 pm) and ad libitum feeding days. |
↓TC −21 ± 4% (P < 0.01) ↓LDL-C −25 ± 10% (P< 0.01) ↓Triacylglycerol −32 ± 6% (P< 0.01) NC in HDL-C |
NM | NM |
Chaouachi et al (2008)64 | 15 male elite judo athletes
|
Ramadan fasting | ↓TC (3.34 ± 0.26 to 3.72 ± 0.31 mmol • l –1) (P< 0.05) ↑HDL-C (1.30 ± 0.31 to 1.42 ± 0.28 mmol • l –1) (P < 0.01) NC in LDL-C and TG. |
NC | ↓ Protein from 77.1± 4.4 to 70.1 ± 4.3 g.l-1 (P < 0.01) |
Ziaee et al (2006)81 | 81 healthy subjects (41 Males - 40 Females).
|
Ramadan fasting | ↓HDL-C (P=0.001) ↑ LDL-C (P=0.045) NS change in TC, TG and VLDL. |
↓ Glucose (p=0.000) | NM |
Bouhlel et al (2006)67 | 9 trained men
|
Ramadan fasting | NM | NC | ↑ Hemoglobin (P < 0.01) |
Heilbronn et al (2005)82 | 16 healthy (8 Males- 8 Females)
|
ADF: fasting every other day for 22 days | NM | For females: ↓ Glucose (p= 0.01) NC in insulin response For males NC in glucose ↓Insulin response (p= 0.03). |
NM |
Fakhrzadeh et al (2003)73 | 91 subjects: -50 Males(Age: 19.9±1.8 years and BMI: 21.8 ± 2.6 kg/m2) -41 Females(Age: 21.9±3.9 years and BMI: 24.0 ± 4.5kg/m2) |
Ramadan fasting | ↓TC (P< 0.001) ↓ TG (P<0.001 for men, P < 0.02 for woman) ↓LDL-C (P < 0.001) ↑HDL-C (P < 0.001) |
↓Glucose in both men (P<0.0001) and women (P<0.0001). | NM |
Larijani et al (2003)83 | 67 male, 48 female adults
|
Ramadan fasting | NM | ↓Glucose (88.4 ± 9.0 mg/dl to 62.9 ± 7.7 mg/dl) (p < 0.001). | NM |
Beltaifa et al (2002)76 | 26 athletes and 32 sedentary individuals | Ramadan fasting | NS modifications | NC | No significant change |
Adlouni et al (1997)72 | 32 healthy men (Age: 25–50 years) |
Ramadan fasting | ↓TC: −7.9% (P< 0.001), ↓TG: −30% (P< 0.001) ↓LDL-C: −11.7% (P< 0.001) ↑HDL-C: −14.3%(P< 0.001). |
↓ Blood glucose: 5.1 to 4.38 mmol/L (P < 0.001) | NM |
Abbreviations: ADCR, Alternate Day Caloric Restriction ADF, Alternate Day Fasting; ADF-HF, Alternate Day Fasting with High Fat ADF-LF, Alternate Day Fasting with Low Fat; BMI, Body Mass Index; CR, Caloric Restriction; CCR, Continuous Caloric Restriction; E-ADF, Exercise With Alternate Day Fasting; EX, Exercise; FCR, Fasting Caloric Restriction; FG, Fasting Group; HDL-C, High Density Lipoprotein; ICR, Intermittent Caloric Restriction; LDL-C, Low Density Lipoprotein; n, number; NC, No Change; ND, Normal Diet; NFG, Non Fasting Group; NM, Not Mentioned; NS, Non Significant; TC, Total Cholesterol; TG, Triglycerides; TRF, Time Restricted Feeding.