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Functionalization of graphene with 1-pyrenebutanoic acid succinimidyl ester (PASE), followed with IGA3 (aptamer) functionalization through a Schiff-base reaction. Upon binding to insulin, the aptamer complexes form both parallel and antiparallel G-quadruplexes, bringing the aptamer–insulin complex closer to the surface of graphene. Reproduced with permission from Hao et al., ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 9, 27504–27511 (2017). Copyright 2017 American Chemical Society.
