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. 2020 Jan 27;10:1251. doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-57541-6

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© The Author(s) 2020

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Overview of strategy. (a) Image of the device whereby a soft-lithography made PDMS microfluidic channel is bound onto a glass wafer patterned with two pairs of sensing electrodes. (b) Microscope image of the channel and electrodes. (c) Diagram showing the experimental design of the cell impedance experiments in which Picochlorum SE3 cells were cultured under widely different salinity conditions (10 mM, 1.5 M NaCl) after being acclimated to 1 M NaCl, and sampled at 4 different time points (1 h, 5 h, 1 d, and 5 d). After culturing, all cells were washed three times in PBS buffer and injected into the electrical impedance analyzer to collect the data. (d) Schematic diagram of the electrical impedance measurement. Algal cells were introduced into the channel from the inlet well. When cells flowed through the sensing region, they blocked part of the ions conducting current between the two electrodes. As a result, the impedance changed in this region. This change was captured by a lock-in amplifier at eight different frequencies. The data were transferred to the attached computer for downstream analysis.