FIGURE 2.

Impact of oxidative stress on adipocyte function. Increased plasma glucose and free fatty acids contribute to increased oxidative stress by increasing the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and decreasing antioxidant concentrations. Increased oxidative stress occurs via enzymes in the cytoplasm, such as NADPH oxidase, and the mitochondria. The oxidative environment increases lipid storage resulting in hypertrophic adipocytes. Additionally, increased mitochondrial ROS (mtROS) alters the activity state of metabolic enzymes either directly or by changing the oxidative state of protein side-chains or by other post-translational modifications, including lipid peroxidation and protein carbonylation. Cumulatively, increased adipocyte oxidative stress decreases adipogenesis and secretion of adipokines, leading to unbalanced energy homeostasis, insulin resistance, and type 2 diabetes.